Theories of Practice:

The Human Resources Frame

MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human
Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

People are the heart of any organization. When

people feel the organization is responsive to their
needs and supportive of their goals, managers and
leaders can count on their followers commitment
and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are
authoritarian or insensitive, who dont communicate
effectively, or who simply dont care about their
people can never be effective managers and leaders.
The human resource manager and leader works on
behalf of both the organization and its people,
seeking to serve the best interests of both.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and

empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people
know that they are important and that managers and leaders are
concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers
aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and
openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their
followers through participation and openness as well as by
making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they
need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders
emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify
issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront
others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of
openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

the human resources frame

Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
Family
Tribe
Clan

Central
Concepts:

Relationships
Self-Interest
Needs
Feelings
Skills

Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:

Fundamental
Challenge:

Empowerment
Liberation
Fulfillment
SelfActualization

Attune
organizational
and human
needs

If the principles of scientific

management were considered
revolutionary, the assertions of the
early human resources theorists were
radical...

as their hypotheses challenged the

antecedents and theories of practice
governing how managers viewed
workers for the new Industrial era.

One of the earliest precursors of

human resources theory...
David Owen
18th

century mercantilist

owned

spinning mills throughout Scotland

believed

that worker productivity could be

improved by being attentive to their basic
human needs

 provided

workers a high standard of

living, including:
decent, clean housing
life-long educational opportunities
preschool
day care

progressive elementary
and secondary schooling
continuing adult education

 in

contrast to prevailing practice, Owen

trained his managers in humane disciplinary
practices...

...endeavored to make workers origins

origins
rather than pawns
pawns of the organization
(de Charms, 1968)

Contrasting pawns and origins...

how managers and
leaders view pawns:
pawns

how managers and

leaders view origins:
origins

passive workers

active resources

basically incompetent and

lazy

competent and basically selfmotivated

require training

bring skills, attitudes,

energy, enthusiasm,
and commitment

are self-regulating

need close supervision

how pawns
pawns
experience work:

replaceable cogs in a
machine

victims of incompetent
bosses, bureaucratic inertia,
and organizational
doublespeak

alienating, dehumanizing, and

frustrating

how origins
origins
experience work:

invigorating opportunities to
make a personal contribution

a place to experience a
sense of belonging, to
build self-esteem, and to
become self-actualized

a place for personal and

professional growth and
challenge by asserting
oneself and advocating
ones needs

The issue raised by the human

resources theories of practice is that of
better aligning people and
organizations not people or
organizations...

because...
people need organizations
for the extrinsic rewards work provides
for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide
organizations need people
for a reliable and stable labor pool
for the energy, effort, and talent people bring

The assumptions of human

resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs
2. organizations and people need each other
salaries
opportunities
careers

ideas
energy
talent

3. the fit of people and organization is critical

an inappropriate fit can lead to
exploitation or victimization by people
and/or the organization

The rise of industrial/organizational

psychology in the 20th century,
especially human needs theories,
provided a theoretical focus to consider
the fit of people and organization...

Abraham Maslow (1954)...

defined

5
4
3

the hierarchy of pre-potent needs

5. self-actualization
4. self-esteem
3. belongingness

2. safety, security

1. physiological

Chris Argyris (1957)...

asserted

that the worker-structure conflict is

built into the traditional principles of
organizational design and management
task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as possible
to improve efficiency

...but the outcome is that work is depersonalized and

becomes monotonous

evidence of worker-structure conflict:

1. personal withdrawalevident in absenteeism and
quitting
2. psychological withdrawalevident in indifference
passivity, and apathy
3. resistanceevident in soldiering, deception,
feather bedding, and sabotage
4. power grabsclimbing the bureaucracy
5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power
imbalances
6. socializing children with negative view of work
(i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)

Frederick Herzberg (1959)...

formulated a two factor theory of the motivation
to work:

2F

motivation is a psychological complex of two

factors manifesting themselves in attitudes
evident in their effects

hygiene factors

2F

2 FACTORS

motivators

these factors are the objective

elements and subjective feelings (i.e.,
needs or drives activated by the
events themselves) antecedent to an
attitude

hygiene factors

extrinsic

do

not motivate but the absence of hygiene

increases worker dissatisfaction

when

hygiene is not met, workers strike or give

up motivation and become addicted to hygiene

Good organizational hygiene provides the

foundation for higher motivation in the
workplace...

hygiene factors

motivators

intrinsic

experiences

enabling personal growth and selfactualization in the work itself

achievement
responsibility
the work itself
advancement

doing complete jobs,

experiencing success
engaging in work design
and accountability
doing the job
engaging in new learnings,
developing expertise

...motivators build on hygiene factors...

motivators
hygiene factors

To inculcate higher motivation in workers,

managers and leaders should focus on:
using

the organizing and planning

functions to encourage high morale

attending

to the workers attitudes not the

work process

While attending to worker morale and attitudes,

managers and leaders recognize:
that

workplace hygiene is primary providing the

foundation for motivation
that motivation to work is a psychological process
not a matter of a workers interest in the job
that

salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator

According to Herzbergs two-factor theory of

motivation, the worst of all motivators is
an across-the-board salary increase

Douglas McGregor (1960)...

posited a theory of management, Theory
X and Theory Y
asserting that a managers assumptions
about people become self-fulfilling prophecies
evident in organizational behavior

 Theory

X... people are inherently:

lazy
passive
possess little ambition
prefer to be led
resist change

 Theory

X... workers are characterized

by:

an external locus-of-control
other-centered directedness

 Theory

X... management through:

coercion
tight controls
threats
punishments

 Theory

X... self-fulfilling prophecies:

coercion

low productivity

tight controls

antagonism

threats

militant unions

punishments

subtle sabotage

 Theory

Y... people are inherently:

motivated
active and interested
ambitious
prefer to lead
interested in change

 Theory

Y... workers are characterized

by:

an internal locus-of-control
self-direction

 Theory

Y... management through:

open systems
communication
self-managing teams

peer-controlled pay systems

 Theory

Y... management through:

open systems

needs and tasks aligned

communication

accurate feedback

self-managing teams

worker investment

peer-controlled pay systems

fairness and equity

 the

essential task of managers and leaders

is to arrange organizational conditions
so that people can achieve their own goals
best by directing their efforts toward
organizational rewards

While industrial/organizational psychology

provided a theoretical focus to consider the fit
of people and organization...

the goal of making the workplace and

productivity a forum for people to express
their freedom and dignity, as noble as this
goal may be, has never been empirically
proven.

Argyris & Schn (1974, 1996)...

juxtaposed two theories of practice,
Model I and Model II
Model Iwhat managers and leaders say conflicts with what
they do

Model IIthrough organizational learning, there is

congruence between what managers and
leaders say and do

Model I assumptions...
organizations

are competitive, dangerous

places
watch

out for yourself or someone else will

do you in

Model I theory-in-use...
core
values

action
strategy

outcomes:
behavior

outcomes:
learning

identify and
achieve
goals

design and
manage the
environment
unilaterally

defensive,
inconsistent,
fearful, and
selfish
appearance

no learning:
self-sealing,
protection
from
negative
feedback

core
values

action
strategy

outcomes:
behavior

outcomes:
learning

maximize
winning,
minimize
losing

own and
control what
is relevant to
ones
interests

engenders
defensive,
inconsistent,
fearful, and
selfish
behaviors in
others

single-loop
learning:
core values
and
assumptions
remain
unquestioned

core
values

action
strategy

outcomes:
behavioral

outcomes:
learning

minimize
the
expression
of negative
feelings

insulate
oneself from
criticism,
discomfort,
and
vulnerability

reinforces
defensive
norms:
mistrust, risk
avoidance,
conformity,
and rivalry

core values
and
assumptions
are tested
privately

core
values

action
strategy

outcomes:
behavior

outcomes:
learning

be rational

insulate
others from
being hurt

critical
organizational
issues are not
discussed

collusion that
impedes
organizational
learning

The Model I problem-solving

process...
1. assume that others are causing the problem

2. develop a private, unilateral diagnosis

and solution to the problem

3. get other(s) to change by...

calmly using facts, logic, and rational

persuasion to assert the merits of your
point of view
using indirect coercive influences

formulating and issuing direct critiques

4. defensiveness confirms the original diagnosis

5. intensify pressures by offering to

protect or to reject the other person(s)
6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility
because the outcome is the other person(s)
fault

Model I outcomes...
Managers and leaders using a Model I
theory of practice increase in workers...
feelings of vulnerability
self-protecting behaviors
games of camouflage
deception

and increase the probability of...

organizational
catastrophe

Model II problem-solving
process...
1. emphasize common goals and mutual influence

LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:

M
A
D

Mutually Assured Destruction

produces no winners

2. communicate openly and publicly,

testing ones assumptions and beliefs
Does what I espouse...

what I do?

3. combine inquiry with advocacy

inquiry

what others think, know,

want, and feel

advocacy

what I think, know, want,

and feel

Human resources theory requires that

managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills:

a fundamental competence in relating with diverse

individuals effectively

the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening way:

What is going on here?

Why are people behaving as they are?

What can I do about it?

sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:

is not afraid of conflict

is able to confront conflict

in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the

passion of the moment and to construct how other
individuals are making sense of things
complicates (rather than simplifies) ones
understanding of how the organization really works

sufficiently good group skills:

negotiates the fit between the individual and the organization

is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and ambiguity

directs conflict towards productive ends

while solving problems, resolves organizational issues

while groups can promote...

groups can also generate

increased knowledge
a diversity of perspectives
time and energy
improved communication
increased acceptance
of decisions

caving into social pressure

inefficiency
personal agendas which
dominate the decision
making process
unproductive constraints

 to

increase group productivity managers

and leaders must be able to address:
others personal interests
the requirements of various task roles
the requirements of various personal roles
informal group norms
interpersonal conflict

Basic human resources

strategies...
1. develop a long-term organizational
commitment to the philosophy of
human resources
build human resources in to the
corporate and incentive
structures
develop quantitative and
qualitative measures of human
resources management

2. invest in people
hire the right people and
reward them well
provide job security
promote from within
train and educate
share the wealth of success

3. deal directly with people

engage in active listening

provide accurate feedback
search for common interests
experiment with ideas and
proposals

doubt ones infallibility

treat differences as a group
responsibility

4. empower people through work

redesign
provide greater autonomy and
participative management
focus on job enrichment
emphasize teamwork
ensure egalitarianism
provide opportunities for
upward hierarchical influence

 Because

change causes people to feel

incompetent, needy, and powerless,
providing for the development of new
skills, creating opportunities for
involvement, and providing
psychological support are essential
managerial/leadership tasks.

Using human resources theory...

effective managers and leaders are

catalysts
servants
support

whose primary concerns are

empowerment

Human resources tasks for

managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group develop
a shared sense of direction and
purpose
2. balance task and process goals
3. endeavor to make group work both
satisfying and efficient

4. keep on top of a large, complex set

of activities
5. get support from bosses
6. get support from corporate staff and
other constituents
7. motivate, coordinate, and control large,
diverse group of subordinates

Abusing human resources

theory...
ineffective managers and leaders are

whose primary concerns are

wimps
pushovers
making people
happy
managing by
abdication

Strengths of the human resources

theory of practice...
personal
practical
addresses fundamental human
needs and interests

Limitations of the human

resources theory of practice...
nave
optimistic
not realistic in a fast-changing
environment

Integrating reflective practice, conceptual

pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames
inculcates the conceptual pluralism needed
to diagnose the issues underlying the
problems manifesting themselves in human
organizations.
the structural frame

the political frame

the human resources frame

the symbolic frame

This module has focused on...

the human resources theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in practice
episodes

as these theories of practice provide

managers a frame of reference to inform
decision making, the

the human resources frame

offers managers and leaders guidance
about the strengths and limits of human
resources theory

A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

People are the heart of any organization. When

people feel the organization is responsive to their
needs and supportive of their goals, managers and
leaders can count on their followers commitment and
loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian
or insensitive, who dont communicate effectively, or
who simply dont care about their people can never be
effective managers and leaders. The human resource
manager and leader works on behalf of both the
organization and its people, seeking to serve the best
interests of both.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

The job of the manager and leader is one of support and

empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people
know that they are important and that managers and leaders are
concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers
aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and
openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their
followers through participation and openness as well as by
making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they
need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders
emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify
issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront
others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of
openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)

the human resources frame

Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
Family
Tribe
Clan

Central
Concepts:

Relationships
Self-Interest
Needs
Feelings
Skills

Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:

Fundamental
Challenge:

Empowerment
Liberation
Fulfillment
SelfActualization

Attune
organizational
and human
needs

The next module will focus on...

the political frame
and the political science theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in practice
episodes

A POLITICAL SCENARIO

Managers and leaders have to recognize

political reality and know how to deal
with it. Inside and outside any
organization, there are always a variety of
different interest groups, each with its own
agenda. There are not enough resources to
give everyone what he or she wants, and
there is always going to be conflict.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

IN A POLITICAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major

constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage
conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build
power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every
group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas
for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable
compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at
articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in
common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a
waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies
outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work
well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who
have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)

the political frame

Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
Jungle

Central
Concepts:

Self-Interest
Power
Conflicts
Competition
Politics
Intrigue

Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
Advocate
Referee
Mediator

Fundamental
Challenge:

Develop
agenda
Form
coalitions and
build power
base
Acquire good
intelligence
Dispense
information
wisely

References

Argyris, C. (1960). Individual actualization in complex

organizations. Mental Hygiene, 44(2), 22637.
Argyris, C. (1986, Sept.-Oct.). Double loop learning in
organizations, Harvard Business Review, 64(5), 74-79.
Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence.
Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115-25.
Argyris, C. (1991). Teaching smart people how to learn.
Harvard Business Review, 69(3), 99-109.
Argyris, C., & Schn, D. A. (1974). Theory in Practice:
Increasing Professional Effectiveness. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the

executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing
organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
DeCharms, P. (1968). Personal causation. New York:
Academic Press.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B.
(1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation.

Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in
educational administration. Journal of Educational
Administration, 27(2), p. 186.
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.