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V. 1.1
Voltage Instability
Power Oscillators
Interruptions
Flicker
- additional
benefits
Bottlenecks
- major benefits
(link to Web)
Asynch. Connection
F a c t o r s & P h e n o m e n a
- major benefits
(link to PPT)
for navigation
DVR
Energy Storage
Harmonic filters
HVDC
HVDC Light
Minicap
MINICOMP(STATCOM)
PSGuard
Wide Area Monitoring
Series compensation
Related Links:
(online)
Shunt capacitor
Shunt reactor
Static Freq. Converter
Transformers
SVC
SVC for Industry
STATCOM
SVR
TCSC
V. 1.1
Asynchronous connection
The interconnected AC networks that tie the power
generation plants to the consumers are in most cases
large. The map below shows the European situation.
There is one grid in Western Europe, one in Eastern
Europe, one in the Nordic countries. Islands like Great
Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete,
Gotland, etc. also have their own grid with no AC
connection to the continent. The other continents on
the globe have a similar situation.
Even if the networks in Europe have the same nominal
frequency, 50 cycles per second or Hertz (Hz), there is
always some variation, normally less than 0.1 Hz,
and in certain cases it may prove difficult or impossible
to connect them with AC because of stability concerns.
An AC tie between two asynchronous systems needs
to be very strong to not get overloaded. If a stable AC
tie would be too large for the economical power
exchange needs or if the networks wish to retain their
independence, than a HVDC link is the solution.
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Bottlenecks
Constrained transmission paths or interfaces in an
interconnected electrical system
The term Bottlenecks is often interchangeable to
congested transmission paths or interfaces. A
transmission path or interface refers to a specific set
of transmission elements between two neighboring
control areas or utility systems in an interconnected
electrical system. A transmission path or interface
becomes congested when the allowed power transfer
capability is reached under normal operating
conditions or as a result of equipment failures and
system disturbance conditions. The key impacts of
Bottlenecks are reduction of system reliability,
inefficient utilization of transmission capacity and
generation resources, and restriction of healthy market
competition.The ability of the transmission systems to
deliver the energy is dependent on several main
factors that are constraining the system, including
thermal constraints, voltage constraints, and stability
constraints. These transmission limitations are usually
determined by performing detailed power flow and
stability studies for a range of anticipated system
operating conditions. Thermal limitations are the most
common constraints, as warming and consequently
sagging of the lines is caused by the current flowing in
the wires of the lines and other equipment. In some
situations, the effective transfer capability of
transmission path or interface may have to be reduced
from the calculated thermal limit to a level imposed by
voltage constraints or stability constraints.
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Flicker
A fluctuation in system voltage that can lead to
noticeable changes in light output.
Voltage Flicker can either be a periodic or aperiodic
fluctuation in voltage magnitude i.e. the fluctuation
may occur continuously at regular intervals or only on
occasions. Voltage Flicker is normally a problem with
human perception of lamp strobing effect but can also
affect power-processing equipment such as UPS
systems and power electronic devices.
Slowly
fluctuating periodic flickers, in the 0.5 30.0Hz range,
are considered to be noticeable by humans. A voltage
magnitude variation of as little as 1.0% may also be
noticeable.
The main sources of flicker are industrial loads
exhibiting continuous and rapid variations in the load
current magnitude. This type of loads includes electric
arc furnaces in the steel industry, welding machines,
large induction motors, and wind power generators.
High impedance in a power delivery system will
contribute further to the voltage drop created by the
line current variation.
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Harmonics
Harmonics are associated with steady-state waveform
distortion of currents and voltages
Harmonics are components that make up a waveform
where each component has a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. The term
Harmonic is normally applied to waveform components
that have frequencies other than the fundamental
frequency. For a 50 Hz or 60Hz system the fundamental
frequency is 50HZ or 60Hz. A waveform that contains
any components other than the fundamental frequency
is non-sinusoidal and considered to be distorted.
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Interruptions
Occur when the supply voltage drops below 10% of the
nominal value
An Interruption occurs whenever a supplys voltage drops
below 10% of the rated voltage for a period of time no
longer than one minute. It is differentiated from a voltage
sag in that the late is not a severe power quality problem.
The term sag covers voltage drops down to 10% of
nominal voltage whereas an interruption occurs at lower
than 10%. A Sustained Interruption occurs when this
voltage decrease remains for more than one minute.
An interruption is usually caused by downstream faults that
are cleared by breakers or fuses. A sustained interruption
is caused by upstream breaker or fuse operation.
Upstream breakers may operate due to short-circuits,
overloads, and loss of stability on the bulk power system.
Loss of stability is usually characterized by out-of-tolerance
voltage magnitude conditions and frequency variations
which exceed electrical machine and transformer
tolerances. This phenomenon is often associated with
faults and deficiencies in a transmission system but can
also be the result of lack of generation resources. The
concerns created by interruptions are evident and include
inconvenience, loss of production time, loss of product,
and loss of service to critical facilities such as hospitals.
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V. 1.1
Long lines
Long lines need special consideration
planning of a power system.
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V. 1.1
Long cables
Cables have large capacitances and therefore, if fed with AC,
large reactive currents. Cables for DC are also less expensive
than for AC. One must distinguish between submarine cables
and land (underground) cables.
Submarine cables
Since no shunt reactor can be installed at intermediate points
(in the sea) and DC cables are less expensive, the majority of
cables > 50 km are for DC.
Underground cables
Long underground cables (> 50 km) have been generally
avoided since the cost for an overhead line was deemed to be
only 10 20 % of the cost for the cable. In many parts of the
world it is now almost impossible to get permission to build a
new overhead line. HVDC Light has changed the cost
relation and the cable solution is less expensive than before.
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V. 1.1
Loop Flow
Unscheduled power flow on a given transmission path in an
interconnected electrical system
The terms Loop Flow and Parallel Path Flow are sometimes
used interchangeable to refer to the unscheduled power flows,
that is, the difference between the scheduled and actual power
flows, on a given transmission path in an interconnected
electrical system. Unscheduled power flows on transmission
lines or facilities may result in a violation of reliability criteria
and decrease available transfer capability between neighboring
control areas or utility systems.
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V. 1.1
Power Oscillations
Periodic variations in generator angle or line angle due to
transmission system disturbances
Oscillations of generator angle or line angle are generally
associated with transmission system disturbances and can
occur due to step changes in load, sudden change of generator
output, transmission line switching, and short circuits.
Depending on the characteristics of the power system, the
oscillations may last for 3 -20 seconds after a severe fault.
Drawn out oscillations that last for a few seconds or more are
usually the result of very light damping in the system and are
pronounced at power transfers that approach the lines stability
limit. During such angular oscillation period significant cycle
variations in voltages, currents, transmission line flows will take
place. It is important to damp these oscillations as quickly as
possible because they cause mechanical wear in power plants
and many power quality problems. The system is also more
vulnerable if further disturbances occur.
The active power oscillations on a transmission line tend to limit
the amount of power that may be transferred, thus may result in
stability concerns or utilization restrictions on the corridors
between control areas or utility systems. This is due to the fact
that higher power transfers can lead to less damping and thus
more severe and possibly unstable oscillations.
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Unbalanced Load
A load which does not draw balanced current from a balanced
three-phases supply
An unbalanced load is a load which does not draw balanced
current from a balanced three-phase supply.
Typical
unbalanced loads are loads which are connected phase-toneutral and also loads which are connected phase-to-phase.
Such loads are not capable of drawing balanced three-phase
currents. They are usually termed single-phase loads.
A single-phase load, since it does not draw a balanced threephase current, will create unequal voltage drops across the
series impedances of the delivery system. This unequal
voltage drop leads to unbalanced voltages at delivery points in
the system. Blown fuses on balanced loads such as threephase motors or capacitor banks will also create unbalanced
voltage in the same fashion as the single-phase and phasephase connected loads. Unbalanced voltage may also arise
from impedance imbalances in the circuits that deliver
electricity such as untransposed overhead transmission lines.
Such imbalances give the appearance of an unbalanced load
to generation units.
An unbalanced supply may have a disturbing or even
damaging effect on motors, generators, poly-phase converters,
and other equipment. The foremost concern with unbalanced
voltage is overheating in three-phase induction motors. The
percent current imbalance drawn by a motor may be 6 to 10
times the voltage imbalance, creating an increase in losses and
in turn an increase in motor temperature. This condition may
lead to motor failure.
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V. 1.1
Voltage Instability
Post-disturbance excursions of voltages at some buses in the
power system out of the steady operation region
Voltage instability is basically caused by an unavailability of
reactive power support in an area of the network, where the
voltage drops uncontrollably. Lack of reactive power may
essentially have two origins: firstly, a gradual increase of power
demand without the reactive part being met in some buses or
secondly, a sudden change in the network topology redirecting
the power flows in such a way that the required reactive power
cannot be delivered to some buses.
The relation between the active power consumed in the
considered area and the corresponding voltages is expressed
in a static way by the P-V curves (also called nose curves).
The increased values of loading are accompanied by a
decrease in voltage (except in case of a capacitive load). When
the loading is further increased, the maximum loadability point
is reached, beyond which no additional power can be
transmitted to the load under those conditions. In case of
constant power loads the voltage in the node becomes
uncontrollable and decreases rapidly. This may lead to the
partial or complete collapse of a power system.
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Shunt Capacitors
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Shunt capacitors
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Links:
HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow
HVDC transmission for asynchronous connection
Applications in Power Systems: Interconnection
ABB HVDC Portal
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Benefits:
Increased Power Transfer Capability
Links:
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Benefits:
Lower investment cost
Lower losses
Links:
HVDC submarine cables
ABB HVDC Portal
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Benefits:
Links:
HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow
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Benefits:
Reduced voltage fluctuations (flicker)
Improved voltage profile along the line
Easier starting of large motors
Self-regulation
more about MiniCap and Flicker
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Benefits:
Increased power transmission capability through decreased total line
reactance
Improved voltage profile along the line
Reduced line losses
more about MiniCap and Long lines & cables
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Benefits:
Increased power factor at the utility source
Easier starting of large motors
Improved voltage regulation and reactive power balance
Self-regulation
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The present version provides monitoring functionality, and its outputs are
intended as mature decision support for operators in taking stabilizing
measures. Actions that the operator may take to improve grid stability
range from generation rescheduling or actions on the reactive power
compensation, blocking of tap changers in the load area and load
shedding in extreme cases.
Benefits:
Improved system stability, security and reliability
Safe operation of power carrying components closer to their limits
Optimized utilization of transmission capacities
Enhanced operational and planning safety
Other applications:
Line Thermal Monitoring (LTM)
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The voltage and current phasors measured at both ends of a line are collected (the
phasors have to be measured at the same instant, which is possible through the GPSsynchronization of the phasor measurement units, PMUs)
Actual impedance and shunt admittance of a line are computed.
Resistance of the line/cable is extracted
Based on the known properties of the conductor material (reference temperature and
dependency coefficient are usually supplied by the manufacturer), the actual average
temperature of the line is determined.
The obtained temperature is an average, not the spot one. The relation between them
shall be verified, i.e. through consideration of the impact of the various weather
conditions along the line at a given time.
Benefits:
Improved power flow control
Other applications:
Power Oscillation Monitoring (POM)
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Optional
Damping of other oscillatory modes (all in one time window, distinguished by different
colors)
Frequencies of other oscillatory modes (all in one time window, distinguished by different
colours
Alarms
When the damping of any oscillation mode decreases to below a predefined value (in two
steps, first is alert, the second emergency alarm)
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Benefits:
Increased power transfer
Enhanced security
Immediate awareness of the power system state in terms of the presence of oscillations,
thus an operator sees the urgency of the situation
Indication of the frequency of an oscillation which may then be associated with the known
existing mode of the power system, i.e. the operator may distinguish if a local or inter-area
mode is excited
Long-term benefits:
With the help of the stored data, long-term statistics can be collected and, based on their
evaluation, the system reinforcements can be performed (such as retuning of Power
System Stabilizers (PSS) to damp the frequencies appearing most often as dangerous
ones).
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more
about
Shunt Capacitor
Reactive Power Factor
and
Other applications:
Harmonic Filters
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Voltage Instability
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application:
Power
Quality
Improvement,
Flicker
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application:
Power
Quality
Improvement,
flicker
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Other applications:
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