Anatomy

Root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruits are made up of different kind
of tissues to perform different functions. Thus, a tissue may be
defined as a group of similar or dissimilar cells that perform a
common function and have a common origin.
Tissues in plants are of three types
1. Meristematic tissues: it includes group or cluster of cells which
remains in continuous state of division or retain their power of
division.
Rounded, oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape and are
compactly arranged without intercellular spaces
Thin, elastic primary wall made up of cellulose, dense protoplasm
with many small vacuoles and large nuclei, donot store reserve food
material
crystals are absent, ER poorly developed

2. Permanent tissues: made up of mature cells, originate from

Meristematic tissues and become permanent at fixed positions,
cells have definite shape, size and functions. Normally these
tissues lose their power of division but sometime under some
special conditions they may regain their power of division.
They are of two types
a) Simple tissues: similar type of cells have common origin and
function. Have three categories
) Parenchyma: these tissues consists of thin walled living cells
having intracellular spaces, cell wall made up of cellulose,
found in epidermis, cortex, pith, pericycle, mesophylls of
leaves, pulp of fruits, xylem and phloem.

Functions of parenchyma
Storage of reserve food materials.
Storage of water.
Gaseous exchange in water plants.
Provide rigidity to plant body and help to maintain
shape of plant body.
They perform all vital activities of plants.

Collenchyma: cell wall show localized thickenings due to presence of

pectin, hemicelluloses and cellulose. Tissue is plastic, extensible and
has capacity to expand and gives a tensile strength to the organ and are
living, chiefly occurs in hypodermis of dicotyledonous stems.
Functions:- 1) Chief supporting tissue in young stems.
2) This tissue has capacity to expand and gives a
strength to the plant and the cells are compactly
arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces.
3) It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and
strength to the plant body.
4) Some cells possess chloroplasts and perform
photosynthesis. So, It helps in manufacturing sugar and
storing it as starch.
5) It is present in the margin of leaves and resist
tearing effect of wind.

 Sclerenchyma: consists of thick-walled dead cells, possess hard

and extremely thick secondary walls. Cells vary in shape, size
and origin.
b) Complex tissue: a group of more than one type of cells having
common origin and working together as a unit is called
complex permanent tissue. E.g. xylem and phloem together
called as vascular tissue.
Xylem: introduced by Nageli (1858). It is chief conducting
tissue of vascular plants responsible for conduction of water
and inorganic solutes.
Phloem: it is the chief food conducting tissue of vascular plants
responsible for translocation of organic solutes.

3. Secretory tissues: the product of the cytoplasm are sometime store

inside the cells, glands or ducts. This phenomenon is known as
secretion. Sometime these products do not take part in further
metabolism of plant body and remove to outside of the body. This
movement of product towards outside is called excretion. Both
secretion and excretion are performed by special type of cells
which are either isolated in various plant organs or aggregated to
form definite tissue, called Secretory tissue.
Thetissuesthat are concerned with the secretion of
gums,resins, volatile oils,nectarlatex, and other
substances in plants are calledsecretory tissues.
The cells of secretory tissues usually contain
numerous mitochondria. The frequency of other cell
organelles varies according to the material secreted.

The tissue system

A group of tissues which perform the same general function,
irrespective of their position or continuity in the plant body. There
are three tissue systems in plants
1. Epidermal tissue system: originated from the outermost layer of
apical meristem, form outermost covering of various plant organs.
. Epidermis
. Cuticle and wax
. Stomata
. Trichomes (hair and scales)
2. Ground tissue system: it forms the bulk of body, distinct region of
ground tissue are cortex, hypodermis, endodermis, pericycle and
pith
3. Vascular tissue system: xylem and phloem

Epidermal tissue system

Epidermis: (Greek, Epi= upon; Derma= skin)

Single layered but in some cases it may be more
than one. They are compactly arranged forming
a continuous layer, interrupted only by stomata.
It provide protection.
Cuticle and Wax: is a fatty substance
deposited over the outer surface of epidermal
cells in form of a separate layer, absent in
young roots. It may be thin or thick and smooth
or rough.
Usually the cuticle is covered with wax. Other
substances deposited may be oil, silicon and
salts like calcium carbonate.
Stomata: Singular is stoma (Greek, Stoma=
mouth). A typical stoma is microscopic and
usually consists of two kidney-shaped guard
cells. The guard cell walls have special elastic
properties, help them to stretch laterally during
stomatal opening.
Trichomes: These are epidermal outgrowths

Ground tissue
system
This system mainly
originates from ground

meristem. The distinct regions of ground tissue

system are cortex, hypodermis, endodermis,
pericycle and pith.
Cortex: Region between epidermis and
endodermis, Consists of parenchymatous,
collenchymatous and sclerenchymatous. Cortex
is distinct in dicotlyledons but not in
monocotlyledons where there is no demarcation
between cortex and pith.
Cortex of root is made up of one type of cells but
in case of stem the outer few layers of cells may
be differentiated into hypodermis, considered
as a zone of protecting and supporting tissues.
Endodermis: Single layer of compactly arranged
parenchymatous cells present between cortex
and pericycle.
Endodermis of roots forms a water-tight jacket

Pericycle: Single or multi-layered cylinder of

thin or thick-walled cells present between
endodermis and vascular tissues.
Pith: Central portion of root and stem is
occupied by pith. It is usually made up of
parenchymatous cells with intercellular
spaces. The main function is storage of water
and food reserves.
Ground tissue of Leaves: Ground tissue of
petiole is made up of parenchymatous cells
with distinct intercellular spaces. In leaf
lamina, bulk of ground tissue is called
mesophyll. These cells are thin-walled
parenchymatous and possess chloroplasts.
The main function of mesophyll is
Photosynthesis.

Vascular Tissue
System
This includes vascular tissues, i.e., Xylem and
phloem.
Both are usually found in bundles, called
vascular bundles.
Main function of vascular bundles is
conduction of water and minerals,
translocation of organic solutes and to give
mechanical support to the plant body.

Primary structure of a root

Various cells and tissues of primary root arise from root apical
meristem. Primary body of root shows the following
anatomical features.
1. epidermis: single layered but in few cases it may be
multilayered , made up of closely packed thin walled living
parenchymatous cells. Epidermis provide protective covering
and to help in absorption of water and solutes.
2. Cortex: originated from the ground meristem , composed of
thin walled paranchymatous cells with prominent air spaces.
3. Exodermis: in case of many monocotyledons and a few
dicotyledons, the outer few layers of cotex are made up of
thick walled cells called exodermis

4. endodermis: innermost layer of the cortex, single layered made

up of compactly arranged barrel shaped cells. Provide air tight
mechanical protective layer which helps to maintain root
pressure, prevent leakage of nutrients from vascular tissues
and regulate the movement of water and mineral salts
5. Pericycle: outer boundary of vascular cylinder, single layer
made of thin walled living cells of parenchyma. It forms
lateral roots as acting as site of their origin, develop part of
vascular cambium and develop cork cambium
6. Vascular system: consist of alternative xylem and phloem. In
case of dicot root number of xylem strands are less than eight
where as in monocot roots they are more than eight
7. Pith: central part of root is occupied by pith. It is very small
and absent in dicot roots.

Internal structure of typical Dicot

root
Epidermis:- is theouter layerof the cells of the young root. The cells
areclosely- packed,thin-walled parenchyma cellswithno cuticle,
chloroplasts or stomata.Root hairsarise from some of the epidermal
cells. Due to the presence of root hairs the epidermis is called as
epiblema or hypodermis.
Functions:- 1)The epidermisprotectsthe underlying tissues of the root.
2) The epidermal cells and the root hairsabsorb water and dissolved
ions.
Cortex: It is simple, multi-layered and consists of thin-walled living
parenchymatous cells with numerous intercellular spaces. On theinner
sideof the epidermis is the cortex and in many plant types it can be
subdivided into anexodermis, a central cortex and endodermis.
Functions:- 1) The cortex allows for thediffusion of water, mineral salts
and oxygenfrom the root hairs inwards.
2) The cortexstores foods reserve, especially starch.
3)The cortex also serves totransport water and saltsfrom the root
hairs to the center of the root.
Exodermis: in case of many monocotyledons and a few dicotyledons,
the outer few layers of cortex are made up of thick walled cells called
exodermis.

 Endodermis: innermost layer of the cortex, single layered made up of

compactly arranged barrel shaped cells. Provide air tight mechanical
protective layer which helps to maintain root pressure, prevent leakage
of nutrients from vascular tissues and regulate the movement of water
and mineral salts.
A single layer of cells in a root that separates the cortex tissues from the
pericycle.
Vascular Cylinder or Stele:- Thevascular cylindercomprises all the
tissues enclosed by the endodermis. It consists of
thepericycleandvascular tissues(xylem and phloem).
Thepericycleis asingle layer of thick-walled, tightly-packed
cellswithoutintercellular spaces.Lateral rootsarise from the
pericycle.
The vascular tissue isconducting tissuein the root. It consists
ofxylem and phloem, which are separated from each other by
parenchyma. Onlyprimary xylemis present in young roots, which
differentiated intoprotoxylem, which lies against the pericycle, and
themetaxylemlying towards the inside.
Functions:- 1) Branch or lateral rootsoriginate in the pericycle.
2) The xylemtransports water and dissolved substancesfrom the roots to
the stem and leaves.
3) The xylem is themain strengthening tissueof the root.
4) The phloemtransports organic substances such as carbohydratesfrom
the leaves to the root.
Pith: central part of root is occupied by pith. It is very small and absent
in dicot roots.

Internal structure of
typical monocot root

Epiblema/Epidermis: It is single layered,

consists of thin-walled cells. A few tubular root
hair arise as unicellular elongation of epiblema
cells.
Externally covered by a waxy layer called
cuticle. It consists of minute pores called stomata.
The cuticle check the evaporation of water and
protect the stem from high temperatures.
Cortex: It is massive, consists of thin-walled
parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces.
Found beneath the epidermis composed of thin
walled spherical of oval parenchymatous cells. It
is concerned with assimilation and storage of food
materials.

 Exodermis: In old root, a few outer layers of

cortex become thick-walled. This zone is called
exodermis and acts as protective layer when
the epiblema is disorganised.
Endodermis: is single layered consists of
thick-walled cells with casparian strips. The
cells of endodermis, opposite to protoxylem,
are thin-walled and called passage cells.
Pericycle: is single layered consisting of thinwalled cells. A few cells may become
sclerenchymatous.
Vascular bundles: They are radial. Large
number of xylem and phloem groups alternate
with each other.
Pith: is large made up of parenchymatous
cells.

Difference between Dicot and monocot Root

Structure of Stem

Stem usually consist of three tissues,

dermal tissue,ground tissueandvascular tissue.
The dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the
stem and usually functions to waterproof,
protect and control gas exchange.
The ground tissue usually consists mainly of
parenchyma cells and fills in around the vascular
tissue. It sometimes functions in photosynthesis.
Vascular tissue provides long distance transport
and structural support. Most or all ground tissue
may be lost in woody stems. The arrangement of
the vascular tissues varies widely among plant
species.

Structure of Dicot
Stem
Epidermis: is outermost
single layered protective

covering made up of compactly arranged

parenchymatous cells. The outer walls of cells are
highly cutinised or coated with wax.
Stomata may be present in young stem
and epidermal out growths include hairs, usually
multicellular.
Functions:- 1) The epidermisprotects the
underlying tissues.
2) The cuticleprevents the desiccation of inner
tissuesand thusprevents water loss.
3) The stomata allowsgaseous exchangefor the
processes of respiration and photosynthesis.
Cortex: epidermis is followed by a few to several
layered thick distinct zone, called Cortex, made
up of parenchymatous cells or differentiated into
two parts- Hypodermis and Cortex.

Vascular Cylinder or Stele:- This region comprises

thepericycle, vascular bundles and pith (medulla).
Pericycle:- The pericycle is made up ofsclerenchyma
cellswhich arelignified, dead fibre cells. These cells
havethick, woody wallsandtapering ends.
Functions:- 1) Itstrengthensthe stem.
2) It providesprotectionfor the vascular bundles.
Vascular Bundles:- are situated in aring on the
insideof the pericycle of the plant. A mature vascular
bundle consists of three main tissues -xylem, phloem
and cambium. Thephloemis located towards
theoutsideof the bundle and thexylemtowards
thecenter. Thecambium separatesthe xylem and
phloem which bring aboutsecondary thickening.
Functions:- 1) The xylem provides apassage for water
and dissolved ionsfrom the root system to the leaves.
2) The xylem alsostrengthens and supportsthe stem.
3) The phloemtransports synthesized organic foodfrom
the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Pith (Medulla):- The pith occupies thelarge

central partof the stem. It consists ofthinwalled parenchyma
cellswithintercellular air spaces.
Between each vascular bundle is aband of
parenchyma, the medullary rays,
continuous with the cortex and the pith.
Functions:1) The cells of the pithstore water and
starch.
2) Theyallow for the exchange of
gasesthrough the intercellular air spaces.
3) The medullary raystransport
substancesfrom the xylem and phloem to
the inner and outer parts of the stem.

Structure of Monocot
Stemare basically the same. However,
The tissues of dicots and monocots

there are essential differences in the arrangement of theepidermis,

ground tissue and vascular tissue.
Epidermis:- The structure and functions of this tissue are the same as
those of the epidermis of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant. The
epidermis consists of asingle layer of living cellswhich are closely
packed. The walls arethickenedand covered with athin waterproof
layercalled thecuticle.Stomataare found in the epidermis. In some
stems eitherunicellular or multicellular hair appear from the
epidermis.
Functions:- 1) The epidermisprotects the underlying tissues.
2) The cuticleprevents the desiccation of inner tissuesand thusprevents
water loss.
3) The stomata allowsgaseous exchangefor the processes of respiration
and photosynthesis.
Ground Tissue:- This region is composed ofsmall, thick-walled
sclerenchymaon the inside of the epidermis. These layers of cells are
followed by larger thin-walled parenchyma cells. Intercellular air spaces
are found in the parenchyma.A cortex or pithis absent.
Functions:-1) Sclerenchyma tissuestrengthensthe stem.
2) Parenchyma tissuestores synthesised organic foodsuch as starch.
3) Intercellular air spaces allow theexchange of gases.

 Vascular Bundles:-The vascular bundlesoccurring nearer

the ring of the stemare smaller and arecloser to one
another. The vascular bundles containno cambiumand
consequentlysecondary thickening does not occur. The
vascular bundle is composed of thefollowing parts:
Sclerenchyma sheath:- Thick-walled sclerenchyma fibres
surround the vascular bundle.
Function: Sclerenchyma sheathsprotect the vascularbundles and
givestrengthto the stem.
Xylem:- Large xylem vessels are found within an irregular
intercellular air space. This space is surrounded by thin-walled
parenchyma cells.
Functions: Xylemtransports water and dissolved ionsfrom the root
system to the stem.
The lignified thick-walled xylem cellsstrengthenthe stem.
Phloem:- Phloem is composed of thin-walled cells, viz. sieve
tubes and companion cells.
Function: The phloemtransports synthesized organicfood such as
carbohydrates from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Difference between Dicot

and monocot Stem

Structure of Leaves

Thefoliage leavesare probably the most noticeable

organs of a flowering plant. Leaves are adapted to
perform certain importantfunctions:photosynthesis,
respirationandtranspiration.
A typical foliage leaf consists of a large, flatleaf blade
(lamina), apetiole (leaf stalk)and aleaf basewith
which the leaf is attached to the stem.
Theveinsare clearly visible on the leaf blade. The way in
which the veins are arranged is known asvenation of
the leaf. The leaf blades of some plants show
indentations or clefts.
If these indentations reach all the way to the midrib so
that the leaf blade isdivided into a number of smaller
pinnae (leaflets), the leaf is called acompound leaf.
If the leaf blade isnot divided into leaflets, the leaf is
termed asimple leaf. Most monocots have simple
leaves, while dicots can have simple or compound leaves.

Internal Structure of Dicot Leaf

Internally they show three tissue systems:- Epidermis,
mesophyll( Ground tissue) and vascular system.
Epidermis:- Each leaf has upper as well as lower epidermis made
up of single layer of compactly arranged parenchymatous cells. A
few plant possess multi-layered epidermis.
Outer walls of epidermal cells are coated with cuticle of variable
thickness. Sometimes, has a extra layer of wax. Usually the
stomata are present more in lower as compared to upper
epidermis.
Mesophyll:- Bulk of tissue lying between upper and lower
epidermis is called mesophyll. It consist of parenchymatous cells
containing chloroplasts and separated by lots of intercellular
spaces. These spaces are interconnected and open into substomatal chambers to maintain gaseous exchange through
stomata.
Vascular system:- vascular supply of leaves is maintained by leaf
traces arising from the vascular cylinder of stem. The mid-rib of
leaf receives the main supply which is then distributed to veinlets.
Mid-rib of leaves either consists of single or many vascular
bundles( e.g. Sunflower). Phloem lies towards lower side and xylem
towards upper side.

Internal structure of Monocot Leaf

Leaves usually show parallel venation.
Like dicotyledonous leaves, monocotyledonous leaves
also possess three tissue systems:- Epidermis,
Mesophyll and vascular system.
Epidermis:- Each leaf has upper and lower epidermis
made up of single layer of compactly arranged cells
are coated with thick or thin cuticle. Stomata found
on both upper and lower epidermis.
Mesophyll:- bulk of tissues lying between upper and
lower epidermis. All the cells of mesophyll contain
chloroplasts and perform photosynthesis.
Vascular system:- monocot leaves are
characterized by possessing parallel venation. Each
vein comprises of single vascular bundle. Each bundle
is surrounded by bundle sheath.

Difference between Dicot and

Monocot leaf
Dicot leaf

Monocot
leaf

Digestion

Digestion: breakdown of food molecules by

enzymatic action into smaller components
General Steps

Ingestion = food is
taken in (eating )
Digestion = Food is
broken down into
smaller pieces
/molecules
Absorption = Nutrient
molecules are
absorbed into body
cells
Egestion = undigested

Intracellular Digestion
In the animal kingdom, only
sponges (Phyla Porifera) do
this exclusively.
Steps:
Cells engulf food via
phagocytosis
or
pinocytosis, forming food
vacuole.
Lysosomes fuse with food
vacuoles;
hydrolytic
enzymes
break
down
food.

Extracellular Digestion
All animals (except sponges) perform
this mode of digestion
Extracellular digestion: digestion (with
in a cavity) in lumen, stomach,
intestines vertebrates, arthropods,
m
any others

Complete Digestive Tracts

Complete digestive
tract = digestive tube
running throughout
body (alimentary canal)
Organisms with a
complete digestive
tract have both a
mouth and an anus

Human Digestion
Ingestion = mouth
Digestion = mouth,
Stomach, Small
Intestines
Absorption = Small
Intestines, Large
Intestines
Elimination = End of
large intestines

Oral Cavity, Pharynx,

Esophagus
Participate in
ingestion and
digestion
Mechanical Digestion
By teeth and tongue
(chewing)
Forms mass of food =
bolus

Chemical Digestion
Salivary amylase
begins digestion of
carbohydrates (starch)

Oral Cavity, Pharynx,

Esophagus
Epiglottis moves during swallowing
to cover the trachea, so food
travels down right pipe to the
esophagus
Peristalsis (muscle contractions) will
continue movement of the bolus

Stomach
Important in storage & digestion
The stomach is a big muscular
pouch which churns the bolus
(Physical Digestion) and mixes it
with gastric juice, a mixture of
stomach
acid,
mucus
and
enzymes.

Stomach
Gastric glands
produce gastric juice
from a combination of
3 cells:
Mucus Cells secrete
mucus (protects
stomach lining)
Chief Cells secrete
pepsinogen (inactive
enzyme)
Parietal Cells secrete
HCl

Stomach
Gastric juice is churned with bolus
to break down food and kill bacteria
HCl converts pepsinogen into
pepsin (active enzyme)
Pepsin hydrolyzes (breaks down)
protein.

Halfway done!

Small Intestine
Participates in digestion and
absorption
Peristalsis allows for movement of
chyme and digestive juices down
the small intestine.

Digestion in the Small

Intestine
Digestion is usually completed in
the duodenum (first section) with
the help of digestive juices

Digestive Juices
Digestive juices
come from 4
sources, entering
the duodenum:
Pancreas
produces digestive
enzymes
produce basic
bicarbonate
solution (buffer)

Digestive Juices
Lining of duodenum
produces digestive enzymes

Liver
Produces bile

Gallbladder
Stores bile

Bile
contains bile salts
breaks up fat droplets
into very small pieces
called micelles
micelles are then
absorbed and taken up
by the lymph vessel
(lacteal)

Absorption of Nutrients
Occurs in the jejunum (mid-small
intestine) and ileum (end-small
intestine)
The surface area in these regions
is very large because of the villi
and microvilli.
Villi and microvilli are projections of
the lining

Absorption of Nutrients
Some nutrients are absorbed into
the lymph vessel.

Absorption of Nutrients
Most nutrients are absorbed into
the blood vessels
capillaries hepatic portal vessel
liver
the liver converts many nutrients and
regulates blood sugar and other
nutrient levels

Water is also absorbed here.

Digestion Summary
Biomolecule

Where Digested

Key Enzymes

Carbohydrates

Mouth, Small
Intestine

Amylase, Maltase,
Lactase, Sucrase

Lipids

Small Intestine

Bile, Lipase

Proteins

Stomach, Small
Intestine

Pepsin, Peptidases,
Trypsin

Nucleic Acids

Small Intestine

Nucleases

carbohydrases

Starches

Glucose
proteases

Proteins

Amino acids
lipases

Fats

Fatty Acids + Glycerol

nucleases

Nucleic Acids
pentose sugars

Nitrogenous bases +
+ inorganic

phosphates

Large Intestine
responsible for water recovery
from digested material
Feces = Waste of digestive tract
Bacteria live here (including E. coli)
that live on feces and produce
vitamins B and K and stinky gases

Large Intestine
End of colon = rectum
End of rectum = anus

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is an enzyme regulated anabolic process of

manufacture of organic compounds inside the chlorophyll
containing cells from carbon dioxide and water with the
help of sunlight as a source of energy. The organisms
which perform photosynthesis are called photoautotroph's.

In 1937, Robert Hill discovered that isolated chloroplasts can

generate oxygen when they are illuminated in the presence of
a suitable electron acceptor, even if no carbon dioxide is
present. This finding was a landmark in the study of
photosynthesis because it was one of the first indications that
the source of electrons in the light reactions is water, and it
confirmed that the evolved oxygen comes from water rather
than from carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it showed that a
significant component of the light reactions can be studied in
vitro using isolated chloroplasts. The Hill reaction is
formally defined as the reduction of an electron acceptor (A)
by electrons and protons from water, with the evolution of
oxygen, when chloroplasts are exposed to light:
light
H2O + A ----------------> AH2 + 1/2 O2
chloroplasts

Importance of photosynthesis
1. With the help of photosynthesis autotrophic plants
synthesizes organic food from inorganic raw materials
2. All the animals and heterotrophic plants depends on the
phototrophs for their organic food
3. Photosynthetic products provide energy to all organisms to
carry out their life activities
4. All useful plant products are derived from the process of
photosynthesis such as timber, rubber, resins, drugs, oils,
fibers. Fossil fuels are also products of photosynthetic
organisms.
5. Photosynthesis is the only natural process that evolves
molecular oxygen for use by other living organisms
6. Photosynthesis decrease the concentration of carbon dioxide
7. Productivity of agricultural crops directly depends upon the
rate of photosynthesis

Raw material for photosynthesis

The raw materials of photosynthesis are
Water: water is used as a source of hydrogen in the
formation of a glucose molecule.
Carbon dioxide: acts as a source of carbon and oxygen for
the formation of glucose molecules.
Sunlight: Sunlight is used as a source of energy to conduct
the process of photosysthesis
Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll are the green pigments present in
the plants that impart the plants with a green color.
Chlorophyll molecules are excited in the presence of light
and liberate electrons, that split water into hydrogen and
oxygen. The hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide
through various complex processes to form glucose, and
the oxygen is liberated out into the atmosphere.

The site of photosynthesis in a plant

Leaves are the major

organs
of
photosynthesis
in
plants.
Gas exchange between
the mesophyll and the
atmosphere
occurs
through
microscopic
pores called stomata.

An overview of photosynthesis: cooperation of the light

reactions and the Calvin cycle.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light reactions

and dark reaction (the Calvin cycle).
Light reactions in photosynthesis, the reactions that
convert light energy to chemical bond energy in ATP and
NADPH.
These reactions:
Occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
Light absorbed by chlorophyll provides the energy to
reduce NADP+ to NAPDH,

Dark reaction (Calvin cycle) the carbon-fixation

reactions that assimilate atmospheric CO2 and then
reduce it to a carbohydrate. These reactions:
Occur in the stroma of the chloroplast
First incorporate atmospheric CO2 into existing
organic molecules by a process called carbon
fixation, and then reduce fixed carbon to
carbohydrate

Carbon fixation the process of incorporating CO2 into organic

molecules.
The Calvin cycle reactions do not require light directly, but
reduction of CO2 to sugar requires the products of the light
reactions:
NADPH provides the reducing power.
ATP provided the chemical energy.

The light reactions use solar energy to make ATP

(chemical energy) and NADPH (power reduction). ATP
produced in the light reactions of photosynthesis is only
dedicated to drive the Calvin cycle.

thylacoids

stroma

The Calvin cycle

incorporates CO2
into organic
molecules, which are
converted to sugar.
Thylakoid
membranes are the
sites of the light
reactions,
the Calvin cycle
occurs in the stroma.

thylacoids

stroma

Factors affecting photosynthesis

External factors
1. Light
Light intensity: under low light intensity usually the rate of
photosynthesis is low
Light quality: photosynthetic pigments absorb visible part
of radiations
Duration of light: longer duration of light favors
photosynthesis
2. Carbon dioxide: if the CO2 conc. Increase it increases
the rate of photosynthesis. But very high conc. Become
toxic and inhibit photosynthesis.
3. Temperature: increase in rate of photosynthesis by
increasing temp up to 40 C, above it decrease the
process

4. Water: essential raw material

5. Oxygen: It is inhibitory
6. Mineral: elements deficiency of some minerals decrease
photosynthesis such as Mg, Fe, Cu, Cl, Mn, P.
INTERNAL FACTORS
1. Age:
2. Chlorophyll
3. Hormones
4. Leaf anatomy

Respiration
Cellular respiration is an enzyme-controlled process of biological
oxidation of food material in a living cells, using molecular
oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water and releasing energy
in small steps and storing it in biologically useful forms, generally
ATP.
Organic compounds catabolised in the living cells to release
energy are called respiratory substrates. Any foodstuffcarbohydrate, fat or protein- may be used in cellular respiration.
Respiration which is use proteins is called protoplasmic
respiration, where as that which uses carbohydrates or fates is
termed floating respiration.

Exergonic Reactions: a chemical reaction which releases energy

by splitting a large molecule into smaller ones is called
exergonic reaction. the splitting exergonic reaction are also
called catabolic reactions.
Endergonic reaction: a chemical reaction which joins smaller
molecules into larger one by taking up (storing) energy is
termed endergonic reaction also termed as anabolic reaction.

Types of respiration
1. Aerobic Respiration
The breaking down of organic food to produce
energy where oxygen is present.

C 6 H 12 O6 6O2 Enzymes
6CO2 6 H 2 O 36 ATP

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water+ Energy

2. Anaerobic Respiration: Refers to the oxidation of

molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy.

It
is
also
known
as
fermentation.

2 ATP C6 H12O6

Enzymes

2CH 3CH 2OH 2CO2 4 ATP

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. Occurs in majority of
organisms

Occur in few organisms (yeast

and some bacteria)

2. It involves exchange of gases

between organisms and
environment

Exchange of gases does not occur

3. Use oxygen

Does not use oxygen

4. Produce water

Does not produce water

5. Release entire energy available Release only 5 % energy

in glucose
available in glucose
6. Yield inorganic end products

Yield organic end product

7. Occur in cytoplasm and

mitochondria

Occur in cytoplasm only

8. Involves 3 steps: glycolysis,

2 steps: glycolysis and
kreb cycle and terminal oxidation. incomplete breakdown of pyruvic
acid.

Diffusion
The movement of molecules or ions of a solute or a solvent (be it
a solid, liquid or gas) from the region of its higher
concentration to that of its lower concentration.

Factors influencing rate of diffusion

1. Temperature: increase in temperature increase the diffusion
2. Medium in which diffusion occurs: diffusion will be slow if
the medium is concentrated
3. Diffusion pressure gradient: it implies the applications of
conc. differences over a specific distance. Greater the
diffusion pressure gradient, more rapid will be the net
diffusion of molecules.

Importance of diffusion in plants

1. Exchange of gases like CO2 intake and O2 output in
photosynthesis and CO2 output and O2 intake in respiration
take place by the principle of independent diffusion.
2. Involved in the transpiration of water vapors
3. Ions are absorbed by the simple diffusion during passive salt
uptake
4. It is a effective mean of transport of substances over a very
short distance and helps in translocation of food materials

Osmosis
OSMOSIS is the net diffusion of water molecules from a dilute
solution to the concentrated solution when the two are
separated by means of a semi permeable membrane
TURGOR PRESSURE: the actual pressure exerted by the
protoplasm against the cell wall is the turgor pressure
OSMOTIC PRESSURE: maximum amount of pressure that can
be developed in a solution separated from pure water by semipermeable membrane is termed osmotic pressure.

Osmosis A Special kind of Diffusion

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
(a barrier that allows some substances to pass but not
others). The cell membrane is such a barrier.
Small molecules pass through ex: water
Large molecules cant pass through ex: proteins and
complex carbohydrates

Hypotonic The solution on one side of a membrane where the solute

concentration is less than on the other side. Hypotonic Solutions contain a low
concentration of solute relative to another solution.
Hypertonic The solution on one side of a membrane where the solute
concentration is greater than on the other side. Hypertonic Solutions contain a
high concentration of solute relative to another solution.

Over time molecules will move across the

membrane until the concentration of
solutes is equal on both sides. This type of
solution is called ISOTONIC.

Importance of osmosis in plants

1. Important in the absorption of water in plants
2. Cell to cell movement of water occurs throughout the plant
body due to osmosis
3. Shape and form of organisms is maintain through osmosis
4. Leaves become turgid and expand due to their OP
5. growing point of root remain turgid because of osmosis and
thus able to penetrate the soil particles
6. The resistance of plants to drought and frost is due to OP
7. opening and closing of stomata is effected by osmosis

Differences between diffusion and osmosis

DIFFUSION

OSMOSIS

Diffusion
is
net
downward
movement of a given substance
along the free energy gradient from
the place of higher concentration to
an area of its lesser concentration

Special type of diffusion of solvent

molecules from low concentration of
solution to higher concentration of
solution through semi-permeable
membrane

May occur in any medium and the Occur in liquid medium and only the
diffusing particles may be solid, solvent molecules move from one
liquid or gas.
place to another

Presence
of
semi-permeable semi-permeable
membrane
in
membrane is not required
between the two solutions is required

Transpiration

1. Definition
Transpiration is the loss of water in
the from of water vapours from the
living tissues of the aerial parts of
plants.
Of all the water plant absorbs, over 9599% is transpired to the air as water
vapor.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
Most of the transpiration occur through foliar surface or
surface of leaf known as foliar transpiration (accounts for over
90 % of total transpiration. Transpiration though stem is called
cauline transpiration
Depending upon the plant surfaces transpiration is of following
type
1. Stomatal transpiration : occurs through stomata

Stomatal transpiration

Cuticle
Prevents
water loss

Mesophyll
Site of
photosynthe
sis

Cuticle
Stomata
Openings allow
gases and water to
move in and out of

Guard
Open
and
cells
close the
stomata

Function of Guard Cells

How do the guard cells
react to the availability
of water?

Dry guard
cells CLOSE
lots of H2O
guard cells
OPEN

2.

Cuticular transpiration: take place through cuticle or

epidermal cells of leaf. The leaf is covered by a layer of
cuticle, which is made up of cutin (a wax like substance). 5 to
7% of water is lost through the cuticle of the leaf surface. At
night
when
the
stomata
are
almost
closed Cuticular transpiration
takes
place.

3. Lenticular transpiration : found only in woody branches of tree

where lenticels are present, 0.1 %,
4. Bark transpiration : take place through corky covering of the
stem

Environmental factors that affect

the rate of transpiration
1. Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the
light than in the dark. This is largely
because
light
stimulates
the
opening of the stomata , Light also
speeds up transpiration by warming
the leaf .

2. Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher
temperatures because water evaporates
more rapidly as the temperature rises.
3. Humidity
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of
water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.
4. atmospheric pressure low atm. pressure
enhance evaporation, produce air currents
and increase rate of transpiration

 5. Wind
When a breeze is present, the humid air is
carried away and replaced by drier air, thus
movement of air increase the transpiration .
6. Soil water
the rate of transpiration is depends upon
rate of adsorption of water from soil by roots.
A decrease in water uptake by the root cause
partial dehydration of the leaf cells resulting
in closure of stomata and wilting
Wilting: loss of turgidity of leaf and other soft
aerial parts of a plant causing their drooping,
folding and rolling.

 Plant factors effect transpiration

1. Leaf area
2. Leaf structure
. Thickness of cuticle
. Stomata
. Hair
. Mesophyll
. Leaf modification
3. Root/ shoot ratio
4. Mucilage and solutes

Significance of transpiration
advantages
1. Ascent of sap
2. Removal of excess water
3. Cooling effect
4. Distribution of mineral salts
5. Increasing concentration of mineral salts
6. Root system
7. Quality of fruit

Disadvantages
1. Wilting
2. Reduce growth
3. Reduce yield
4. Abscisic acid
5. Wastage of energy
6. modification

Transpiration helps to remove excess water from the plant body by making
the plant body cool and hydrate. But when excess transpiration occures the
necessary water is removed from the plant body and the body wilts. Loss
of water from the plant results wilting, serious desiccation and often death
of a plant if a condition of drought is experienced. There is strong evidence
that even mild water stress results in reduced growth rate and in crops to
economic losses through reduction of yield.
Despite its apparent inevitability, transpiration is also of great significance
for the plant. Water is conducted in most tall plants due to transpiration
pull.
Minerals dissolved in water are distributed throughout plant body by
transpiration stream.
Evaporation of water from the exposed surface of cells of leaves has
cooling effect on plant. Wet surface of leaf cells allow gaseous exchange.
Transpiration affects indirectly the processes of respiration and
photosynthesis.
So this process is called necessary evil

Nutrition
Processes by which organisms obtain
and use the nutrients required for
maintaining life

Modes of nutrition
Ways of obtaining and using
nutrients
Nutrition
Autotrophic
nutrition
Holozoic
nutrition

Heterotrophic
nutrition
Saprophytic
nutrition

Parasitic
nutrition

Autotrophic nutrition
Organisms make their own
food (complex organic
substances) using simple
inorganic substances
Autotrophs
e.g. Green plants
by photosynthesis

1. Photoautotrophic nutrition:
An organism, typically a plant, obtaining energy from sunlight as its source of energy
to convert inorganic materials into organic materials for use in cellular functions such
as biosynthesis and respiration.
2. chemoautotrophic nutrition:
An organism, such as a bacterium or protozoan, developed a technique to capture
energy released during oxidation of organic chemical substances and prepare organic
food with its help.

 Heterotrophic nutrition
Organisms which depend on other
organisms or dead organic matters
as their food sources
Heterotrophs

Cannot make their own food and

obtain their food in organic form

Holozoic nutrition
Organisms take in solid organic food from other
organisms
heterotrophs
Food needs to be broken down into small molecules before they can be used by
the organisms

Types of animals taking holozoic

nutrition
Herbivores
Feed on plants only
Carnivores
Feed on animals only
Omnivores
Feed on both plants and animals

Saprophytic nutrition
(Saprophytism)
Organisms feed on dead organisms
or non-living organic matter
Saprophytes
(e.g. fungi, bacteria)

Parasitic nutrition
(Parasitism)
Organisms (parasite) obtain organic
compounds from another living
organism of a different species (host)
Parasite is benefited
Host is harmed

Macronutrients and
Micronutrients
Plants derive most of their organic mass from the
CO2 of air but they also depend on soil nutrients
More than 50 chemical elements have been
identified among the inorganic substances in
plants, but not all of these are essential
A chemical element is considered essential if it is
required for a plant to complete a life cycle

Macronutrients and
Micronutrients
Nine of the essential elements are
called macronutrients because plants
require them in relatively large
amounts
C, O, H, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S

The remaining eight essential

elements are known as micronutrients
because plants need them in very
small amounts
Cl, Fe, Zn, Mn, B, Cu, N, Mo

Essential elements in plants

Mineral Deficiency
The most common deficiencies
Are those of nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorus
Healthy

Phosphate-deficient
Reddish-purple
margins esp. on
young leaves

Potassium-deficient
Firingdrying along
tips and margins of
older leaves

Nitrogen-deficient
Yellowing that starts
at the tip and moves
along the center of
older leaves

Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from the opened anther of the stamen to
the receptive stigma of the carpal is called pollination. It is of two
type
1. Self pollination
2. Cross pollination
Self pollination : transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a
flower to the stigma of the same flower. It is of two types
a) Autogamy : pollen from the anthers of a flower are transferred to
the stigma of the same flower
b) Geitonogamy: pollen from the anther of one flower are
transferred to the stigma of another flower borne on the same
plant.

Cross pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the flower of

one plant to the stigma of the flower of another plants also
known as xenogamy or allogamy.
The agents responsible for the cross pollination are
a) Abiotic : such as wind, gravity water
b) Biotic: animal pollinators

Anemophily (wind pollination): mode of pollination with the agency of

wind. The flowers which are wind pollinated are called anemophilous.
Flowers are small colourless, odourless and nectarless.
Pollon grains are small, light, dey, dusty and somtime winged so that they
are easily blown away to long distance. E.g. grasses, sugarcane, bamboo,
maize.

Hydrophily (water pollination): mode of pollination through agency of water

Flowers are small colourless, odourless and nectarless
Calyx, corolla and other floral parts are unwettable
Pollon grains and stigma are generally wetable e.g. Hydrilla

Ornithophily (pollination by birds): mode of pollination performed by birds. Most

common bird pollinators are Sub birds, Humming birds, Crow, Bulbul, Parrot,
Mynah etc.
Flowers are usually large in size. They have tubular or funnel-shaped
Flowers are brightly coloured
Flowers produce abundant watery nectar.

Entomophily (insect pollination): mode of pollination with the agency of insects.

Flowers are usually large, conspicuous, brightly coloured and showy to attract insect
pollinators
Small flowers bloom in bunches to attract the insects.
Different colours of flowers attract different insects.
Blossom at a specific time when particular insect pollinator is available.
Usually produce specific odours to attract specific insects.
The outer surface of pollon grains may be rough, spiny or sticky.

 Chiropterophily (bat pollination): mode of pollination

performed by bats.
the flower they visit are large in size, dull coloured, have
strong scent

 Advantages of self pollination

chance of pollination are more
It need not to produce a large number of pollen grains
Flowers not need to produce large showy petals, scent, nectar to
attract pollinators
Disadvantages
Progeny gets weaker after every generation
Less chance of produce new varieties

 Advantages of cross pollination

Brinds about genetic recombination and production of new
varieties
Produce healthy and stronger offsprings
Variation caused due to cross pollination may results in production
of disease resistant plants
Several crop plants give significant higher yield if bees are
available and cross pollination is allowed to occur.
Disadvantages
Cross pollination is not economical. Plant waste a lot of energy and
food materials in unnecessary adaptationa and devices to bring
about pollination
Cross pollination is uncertain because factor of chance is always
involved.

 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

the seeds and fruits are disseminated to different distances from their parents
in order to get sufficient space, light and nutrients for successful
propagation and evolution of species. normally they do not possess power
for locomotion and therefore they are dependent on some external agencies
for dispersal.
Based on the agencies involved , the dispersal is of two types
Dispersal f seeds and fruits

By plant itself
1. (Autochory)
Mechanical dispersal

By external agencies
1. Anemochory (wind dispersal)
2. Hydrochory (water dispersal)
3. Zoochory (dispersal by man and
animals)

WATER DISPERSAL

Seeds of plants which grow near water may

be carried far away by streams & rivers.
How do you think the seeds eventually begin growing in this case?

EXPLOSIVE DISPERSAL

Some plants distribute their seeds by violently ejecting

them so that they fall well away from the parent plant.

Gorse is a good example of this.

Sitting near Gorse bushes on a hot day in summer you can
hear exploding pods sound almost like gun shots.

ANIMAL DISPERSAL - 1
Animals, including humans, have a big role to
play in seed dispersal.

Some species of plant use hooks on their

fruits to attach themselves to the fur of
mammals or feathers of birds or even the clothes of
humans!

ANIMAL DISPERSAL - 2

The seeds of many plants are dispersed after passing through

the digestive system of animals that have eaten them.
What kind of animals would eat these fruits/seeds?

ANIMAL DISPERSAL - 3

Hard nuts are usually destroyed if chewed or eaten.

However, animals such as squirrels may store them to eat

later and forget to go back to get them, giving them a
chance to germinate.
On rare occasions, birds such as blue jays can transport
acorns long distances.

Wind Dispersal
Small, hard, dry
fruits are often
dispersed by
wind. Some
plants have
seeds within
fruits acting as
kites or
propellers that
aid in wind

Seed dispersal from the

Common Milkweed
(Asclepias syriaca),
North America.
Leroy Simon / Visuals
Unlimited

Wind Dispersal contd:

Most of these plants

Overproduction
produce a large
number of seeds, but
most of the seeds
will not produce
mature plants.
Their large number
and ability to
disperse to new
habitats ensure that
at least some will
grow and eventually
produce seeds
www.painetworks.com/pagesrf/ii/ii0822.html
themselves.

Wind Dispersal contd:

Some plants
have seeds
within fruits
acting as kites
or propellers
that aid in wind
dispersal.

Maple winged
fruits

www.oplin.lib.oh.us/tree/.../
maple_hedge.html

Linkshttp://ncertbooks.prashanthellina.com/11biology.html
http://ncertbooks.prashanthellina.com/12biology. Biology/ Bhatia K.N. and Tyagi
M.P. 2014. Elementary Biology Vol. 1, Truemans. Bhatia K.N. and Tyagi
M.P. 2014. Elementary Biology Vol. 11, Truemans.
http://yputu.be/ebQdr-UnV6E (for plant anatomy)
http://youtu.be/Q6ucKWllFmg (cell division)
http://youtu.be/IA42ujTgCnl (probiotics)