Data Analysis

Descriptive and Inferential

Statistics
April 11, 2013

Importance of Statistics in Nursing

Research
Researchers link the statistical
analyses they choose with the
research question, design, and level
of data collected.
Allows us to critically analyze the
results.
Provide organization and meaning to
data.

Where Do You Find Them?

Methods section will contain the
planned statistical analysis.
Results section will provide the data
generated from testing the hypothesis
or research questions.
Data is the analysis using descriptive
and inferential statistics.

Levels of Measurement
Measurement is the process of assigning
numbers to variables.
For example: Males and females in a study.
Males would be assigned as 1 and females
assigned as 2.
Every variable in research study that is
assigned a specific number must be similar to
every other variable assigned that number.

Levels of Measurement
Nominal- aka categorical, naming or classifying.
Either does or does not have the characteristic.
Lowest level of measurement and allows for the
least amount of statistical information.
Examples- gender, marital status, religious
affiliation.
Can you think of one?

Ordinal
Used to show relative rankings of variables
or events.
Ranks in order from high to low, but does
not indicate how much higher or how
much lower.
Intervals are not necessarily equal and
there is no absolute zero.
Limited in the amount of mathematical
manipulation possible.
Examples- class rank, levels of wellness,
levels of height.

Interval
Shows rankings of events or
variables on a scale with equal
intervals between.
Zero point remains arbitrary and not
absolute.
Allows for more mathematical
manipulation of data.
Examples- test scores and
temperature on a Fahrenheit scale.

Ratio
Shows rankings of events or
variables on scales with equal
interval and absolute zero.
Most often used in physical sciences.
Highest level of measurement, allows
for most manipulation of data.
Number represents the actual
amount of the property the object
possesses.
Example- height, weight, pulse and

NOIR
No
Oil
In
Rivers

Descriptive Statistics
Procedures that allow researchers to describe
and summarize data you definitely know
(describes the sample).
Examples: Demographics, clinical data.
Frequency distribution is one way to display
data. See page 313.
http://youtu.be/ZSGy1jfB1jA

Descriptive Statistics
Measures of central tendency are used to describe
the pattern of responses among a sample.
Mean- most frequently used average, add up
numbers (sum) and then divide by the #. Defined
as a balance point in a distribution of scores.
Median-50% are above and 50% are below the
score. Defined as the middle point in a
distribution. Insensitive to extreme scores.
Mode-Most frequently occurring score. May have
more than one mode.

Normal Distribution
Most important curve (Bell-shaped).

Most often found in nature and used as the

basis for a number of inferential statistics.
Mean, median and mode are equal.

Measure of Variability
Concerned with the spread of data.
Range- the difference between the highest and
lowest score.
Semiinterquartile range- indicates the range of the
middle 50% of the scores.
Standard Deviation-most stable and most useful,
provides an overall measurement of how much
participants scores differ from the mean of the group.
Z score-used to compare different measurements,
scores are converted to Z scores and them
compared.

Inferential Statistics
Data collection procedures that allow
researchers to estimate how reliably
they can make predictions and
generalize findings.
Allows us to compare groups and test
hypothesis.
Answer research question in a study.
http://youtu.be/lgs7d5saFFc

Inferential Statistics
Parameter- a characteristic of a
population.
Statistic- characteristic of a sample.
Not possible to study the whole
population so we study a sample and
make predictions or statements
related to our findings.

Inferential Statistics
2 important qualifications must be
conducted to use inferential statistics.
Sample must be representative (drawn with
probability, some form of random
selection).
Scale used must be either interval or ratio
level of measurement.
If nonprobability sampling occurs
techniques such as power analysis are
used to compensate for this.

Inferential Statistics
Researchers are able to make objective
decisions about the outcome of their study
by using statistical hypothesis testing.
Scientific hypothesis is what the researcher
believes will be the outcome of the study.
Null hypothesis is what can actually be
tested by the statistical methods.
Inferential stats use the null hypothesis to
test the validity of a scientific hypothesis.

Inferential Statistics
Probability- the notion that in a
repeated trial/study under the same
conditions we would get the same
results.
Statistical probability is based on
sampling error. The tendency for
stastics to fluctuate from one sample
to another is known as sampling
error.

Type I and Type II Errors

2 types of errors in statistical inference.
Type I- researcher rejects a null hypothesis when
it is actually true.
Type II- researcher accepts a null hypothesis that
is actually false.
Type I errors are considered more serious because
if a researcher declares that differences exist
when none are present the potential exists for
patient care to be adversely affected.
Type II errors occur when sample is too small.

Level of Significance
The probability of making a type I
error.
Minimum accepted level for nursing
research is 0.05.
If I conduct this study 100 times,
the decision to reject the null
hypothesis would be wrong 5 times
out of 100

LOS
If wanting to assume smaller risk
level will be set at 0.01.
Meaning researcher is willing to be
wrong only once in 100 trials.
Decision to use alpha level 0.05 or
0.01 depends of the study
significance.
Decreasing the risk of making a type
I error increases the risk of making a
type II error.

Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

are used to determine significance.
Parametric have 3 attributes:
1. Estimation of at least one population parameter.
2. Require measurement on at least an interval
scale.
3. Involve certain assumptions about the variables
being studied.
.Variable is normally distributed in the overall
population.
.Most researchers prefer parametric statistic
when possible because they are more powerful
and more flexible.

Nonparametric
Not based on the estimation of
population parameters; usually
applied when variable measured on a
nominal or ordinal scale , or
distribution of scores is severely
skewed.
Table 14.3 and Table 14.4, page 324.
Most commonly used inferential
statistics.

Most Commonly Used Inferential

Statistics
Parametric
t statisticcommonly used in
nursing research,
tests whether 2
group means are
different.
ANOVA
ANCOVA

Nonparametric
Chi-square- used
when data is at the
nominal level,
determine difference
between groups.
Robust and used
with small samples.
Fishers exact
probability.

Tests of Relationships
Interested in exploring the
relationship between 2 or more
variables.
Studies would use statistics to
determine the correlation or degree
of association between 2 or more
variables.
Pearson r, the sign test, the Wilcoxon
matched pairs, signed rank test and
multiple regression.

Review Questions
1. Statistics are used in nursing
research to :
a. Help us organize and understand
the data generated.
b. Help us to publish our study results.
c. Help us to analyze data that can be
useful in practice.
d. Help us to determine if results have
practical value.

2. List the four levels of measurement:

___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________

3. The level of measurement that

allows for the most manipulation of
data and is used most often in the
physical sciences is?
__________________
4. Give 2 examples of this level of
measurement:
_____________
_____________

5. Define descriptive statistics.

6. Define inferential statistics.
7.List the measures of central tendency.
______________
______________
______________

8. The bell shaped curve is:

a. Used often in inferential statistics.
b. Known for the mean, median and
mode being equal.
c. Found most often in nature.
d. All of the above
e. A & B.

9. Type ____ errors are most serious

because they can negatively impact
patient care.
10. Rejecting the null hypothesis when
it is true is what type error?

Extra Credit
11. What is the lowest level of
measurement and why?