METHODS OF

RESEARCH
DR. RUVEL J. CUASITO, SR., PECE
DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY
ETHIOPIA, AFRICA

DEFINITIONS OF
RESEARCH

The main goal of research is the gathering and

interpreting of information to answer questions
(Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).

Research is a systematic attempt to provide

answers to questions (Tuckman, 1999).

Research may be defined as the systematic and

objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in
prediction and possible control of events (Best and
Kahn, 1998).

Research is a systematic way of asking questions,

a systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman,
and Hart, 1996).

Points to ponder!
Research can not be undertaken without related
literature reviews
A thorough review of literatures helps you identify
problems
Based on literatures, research questions/problems can
be formulated to build your logical framework

In doing research, a proponent constantly assessing,

reassessing, and makes decisions about the best
possible means of obtaining information that is
trustworthy.
The
information
gathered
through
research
recommendations provides an insight to the
researchers for future course of action to be taken
for better implementation and application.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF
RESEARCH BY FIELDS
Scientific research
Environmental research
Social research
Medical research
Engineering & Technology
Etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF
RESEARCH
By Classification:
Quantitative and Qualitative research
Observational and Experimental research
Basic research
Applied research
Developmental research

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is the collection of objective

numerical data.
Features are classified and counted, and statistical
models are constructed to analyze and explain the
information that has been gathered.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Some of the tools used for this type of research
include questionnaires that are given to test subjects,
equipment that is used to measure something and
databases of existing information.
The goal of quantitative research is to compile
statistical evidence, so the questionnaires used in this
method typically include yes-or-no questions or
multiple-choice questions rather than open-ended
questions such as essay questions.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is subjective and seeks to

describe or interpret whatever is being researched.
Instead of numbers, this type of research provides
information in the form of words or visual
representations.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
It relies on the researcher to observe and record of
what happens, such as participants' answers to openended questions, subjects behavior or the results of
experiments.
Case studies are common examples of qualitative
research.

OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

Observational research is the collection of information

without interference or input from the researcher.
It is the examination of things as they naturally or
inherently are.

OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

The researcher simply observes, measures or records

what occurs. That information is then analyzed and
used to draw conclusions.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Experimental research , the researcher sets the
parameters or conditions and is able to change them to
determine their effects.
Experimental research often occurs in laboratories but
can occur anywhere. It merely requires the researcher
to be able to control one or more conditions of the
experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

This method helps researchers understand how certain

variables the different aspects or conditions that
can change can affect whatever it is they are
studying.

BASIC RESEARCH

When the purpose of research is simply to reveal or

discover what is true, it can be called basic research.
This type of research involves exploring that which is
not known or understood.

APPLIED RESEARCH

Applied research is taking what is already known and

looking for ways to use it, such as to solve problems.
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry
involving the practical application of science.

APPLIED RESEARCH
It accesses and uses some part of the research
communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories,
knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific,
often state-, business-, or client-driven purpose.
Applied research is contrasted with pure research
(basic research) in discussion about research ideals,
methodologies, programs, and projects

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

Developmental research is similar to applied research

but focuses on using what is already known to improve
products or existing technology or to create something
new.

DEVELOPMENT OF
RESEARCH SKILLS
Learning how to conduct good research:
New skills (that many people do not have)
Better understanding and interpretation of the literature
Recognize new questions that need investigation
Objectivity is the key element of research

SEARCH FOR TRUTH

Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of truth:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Custom and tradition

Authority
Personal experience
Deductive reasoning
Scientific inquiry

DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
Logic.
In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general
assumption to specific application
GENERAL SPECIFIC
Aristotle and other early philosophers
Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism
(arguments) [general and specific statements].
All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher.
Therefore, Socrates is moral.
Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing
body mass. Sandi is into resistance training. Therefore,
Sandi will become big and bulky.

INDUCTIVE
REASONING
Conclusions about events (general) are based on information
generated through many individual and direct observations
(specific).
SPECIFIC GENERAL
Researchers observe an individual or group of individuals
from a larger population based on these observations,
generalizations are made back to the larger population.

INDUCTIVE
REASONING
Two kinds of induction:
Perfect
Conclusions based on observations made from ALL members
of a group or population

Imperfect
Conclusions based on observations made from a random
sample of members of a population

DEDUCTIVE VS.
INDUCTIVE
REASONING
Deductive:

Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals.

Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
Inductive:
Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore,
every rabbit has lungs.

THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.

Identifying the problem

Formulating a hypothesis
Developing the research plan
Collecting and analyzing the data
Interpreting results and forming conclusions

IDENTIFYING THE
PROBLEM
First, and arguably the most important, step
Several sources

Theoretical basis
Professional practice
Personal experience
Shear curiosity

Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed

Problem statement; experimental approach to the problem; etc.

PHILOSOPHY OF
HIGHER
EDUCATION
MENTORSHIP!
Work with a professor/researcher that has established a research
agenda
Directed research
Consultative Guidance
Research Completion is the sole responsibility of the research
proponents and not the adviser.
Not spoon feeding

RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
OF HIGHER EDUCATION
(Unethical practices are unacceptable)
Plagiarism, violation of intellectual property laws, spoon feeding ..

FORMULATING A
HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis:
A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the research
A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between
phenomena
Based on deductive reasoning

FORMULATING A
HYPOTHESIS
2 types of hypotheses:
Null hypothesis (HO)
All is equal; no differences exist

Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)

Usually specific and opposite to the null

DEVELOPING THE
RESEARCH PLAN
A strategy must be developed for gathering and analyzing the
information that is required to test the hypotheses or answer the
research question
Four parts:

Selection of a relevant research methodology

Identification of subjects or participants
Description of the data-gathering procedures
Specification of the data analysis techniques

Pilot studies, all must be determined in advance!

COLLECTING AND
ANALYZING THE
DATA
Following all the pre-determined protocols
Time in the lab collecting data
Analyzing the composite data
Controlling the environment
Easiest part of the process
However, sometime the most time-consuming part of the
process

INTERPRETING RESULTS
AND FORMING
DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!
CONCLUSIONS
Does the evidence support or refute the original hypotheses?
Accept or reject the hypotheses
Conclusions should be drawn:
Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study

New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted

Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected

Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,

and Hart, 1996)

TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS

3 Types
Descriptive questions
Difference questions
Relationship questions

DESCRIPTIVE
QUESTIONS
Purpose:
To describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular
group of subjects being studied
Survey research
Qualitative research

Determinants of college students' health-promoting lifestyles.

Larouche R.
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This descriptive study of 151 university students in Boston, Massachusetts, was

undertaken to determine the relationships of their perceived health status, sex,
grade point average, and health and nonhealth majors to their health-promoting
lifestyles, using the Health Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) II, based on Pender's
model. Students' perceived health status was significantly predictive of total HPLP II,
exercise, stress management, and spiritual growth. College women practiced
significantly better nutrition, interpersonal relationships, health responsibility, and
total HPLP II than men. The whole sample scored lower in stress management than
any previous group studied. Male students, those reporting poor health, and all
students are targeted for intervention and research in their deficient areas.
Guidelines for nursing practice are derived from the HPLP II questionnaire. These
clinically significant findings may guide nurse practitioners to intervene in the health
awareness and practices of college students.

Weight management behaviors of African American female college students.

July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.
Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is a

problem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientific
research. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management;
behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptive
correlational study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that
at least fifty percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead to
obesity.

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996 Sep 6;45(35):760-5.

Related Articles, Links

School-based HIV-prevention education--United States, 1994.

[No authors listed]

Many adolescents in the United States engage in behaviors that increase their risk for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Because 95% of all
youth aged 5-17 years are enrolled in school, school health programs can be an efficient method to help
prevent these behaviors. Previous studies have examined selected characteristics of HIV education in the
United States; however, none provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV education policies and programs
nationwide. In 1994, CDC conducted the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), which
assessed five components of the school health program: health education, physical education, health services,
food service, and health policies. To provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV-prevention education
programs nationwide in 1994, CDC analyzed data from the health education component of the study. This
report summarizes the findings, which indicate that although HIV-prevention education has been widely
implemented in U.S. schools, improvement in these programs is needed.

DIFFERENCE
QUESTIONS
Purpose:
To make comparisons between or within groups.
Is there a difference?
Experimental research
Treatment vs. control
Pre- vs. post-test comparisons
Nonexperimental research
Compare one group to another based on existing
characteristics

J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.

Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.
Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.
Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.
The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally
tolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women)
underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control
period (Con) of no stretch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal
voluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristics
were assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after
PS(max) or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%)
and at 5 (21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor
unit activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but had recovered
by 15 min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have been
temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single
muscle decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation
and contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the
entire period of deficit.

RELATIONSHIP
QUESTIONS
Purpose
To investigate the degree to which two or more variables
covary or are associated with each other
Rather than analyzing the differences between groups,
researchers characterize the relationships among them.
Extent to which variables are related
Not to establish cause-and-effect

Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41.

Related Articles, Links

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular

disease risk factors in children and adults.
Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.
Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.
The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors were
studied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects were
families recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by a
submaximal cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, yielding caloric
expenditure, and by a simple self-rating of activity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL), and body
mass index. For all subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk factors.
After adjustment for body mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations were no longer significant. Sevenday caloric expenditure was significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children. The
activity rating was significantly correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in female
adults and male adults. The simple activity rating tended to be correlated with fitness. The pattern of
association was similar for adults and children.

THEORY VS. HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis

A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the

research
A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
Based on deductive reasoning

Theory
A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other
A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables with a purpose of explaining and
predicting phenomena
Based on inductive reasoning

Hypotheses

In an ideal
world

Theories

Laws

EMPIRICISM
Acquiring information and facts through the observation of our
world

Pragmatic observations (realistic, actual)

Developing theory through experience and observation
Non-scientific
Quick and practical solution to a problem
With little interest in explaining when, how, or why

Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)

RESEARCH
CLASSIFICATIONS
System #1:
Basic research
Applied research
System #2:
Quantitative research
Qualitative research
System #3:
Experimental research
Nonexperimental research

BASIC VS. APPLIED

RESEARCH
Basic
Pure, fundamental
research
Discovery of new
knowledge;
theoretical in nature
Takes many years
for the results of
basic research to
find some practical
utility

Applied
Central purpose to
solve an immediate
problem
Improved products
or processes
Infers beyond the
group or situation
studied
Interpretation of
results relies upon
Basic research

J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links

Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production
and jumping performance.
Young WB, Behm DG.
School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. w.young@ballarat.edu.au

AIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has
not been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static
stretching of the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance.
METHODS: Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a
randomised order prior to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static
stretch, run + stretch, and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop
jump were performed, which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of
the leg extensor muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height,
contact time and height/time). RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and
the run or run + stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There
were no significant differences (p<0.05) between the control and run + stretch warm-ups, whereas the run
yielded significantly better scores than the run + stretch warm-up for drop jump height (3.2%), concentric
jump height (3.4%) and peak concentric force (2.7%) and rate of force developed (15.4%). CONCLUSION:
The results indicated that submaximum running and practice jumps had a positive effect whereas static
stretching had a negative influence on explosive force and jumping performance. It was suggested that an
alternative for static stretching should be considered in warm-ups prior to power activities.

J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Aug;16(3):399-408.

Power output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal,
concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women.
Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Johnson GO, Ebersole KT, Perry SR, Bull AJ.
Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln 68588, USA. jcramer@unlserve.unl.edu

The purpose of this study was to examine the responses of peak torque (PT), mean power output (MP),
mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitudes, and mean power frequencies
(MPFs) of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus medialis (VM) in men and women
during dynamic muscle actions. Twelve women (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) and 11 men (22 +/- 3
years) performed maximal, concentric, isokinetic leg extensions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300
degrees x s(-1) on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. Piezoelectric MMG-recording sensors and bipolar surface
EMG electrodes were placed over the VL, RF, and VM muscles. No sex-related differences were found
among the velocity-related patterns for PT, MP, MMG amplitude, MMG MPF, or EMG MPF. There were,
however, sex-related differences in the patterns of EMG amplitude across velocity. The results indicated
similar velocity-related patterns of increase of MP and MMG amplitude for all 3 muscles and of EMG
amplitude for the VL and VM in the women. Velocity-related decreases (p <or = 0.05) were found for PT
and EMG MPF for the VL. EMG amplitude for all muscles in the men and for the RF in the women as well
as EMG MPF for the RF and VM remained unchanged (p > 0.05) across velocity. MMG MPF increased (p <
or = 0.05) only between 240 and 300 degrees x s(-1). Overall, these findings suggested that there were
sex- and muscle-specific, velocity-related differences in the associations among motor unit activation
strategies (EMG amplitude and MPF) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG amplitude and
MPF). With additional examination and validation, however, MMG may prove useful to practitioners for
monitoring training-induced changes in muscle power output.

QUANTITATIVE VS.
QUALITATIVE
Quantitative
Numerical, measurable
data
Traditional or positivist
approach
Clearly stated
questions
Rational hypotheses
Developed research
procedures
Extraneous variable
controls
Large samples
Traditional,
statistical analyses

Qualitative
Generally nonnumerical data
Typically
anthropological and
sociological research
methods
Observations of a
natural setting
In-depth descriptions
of situations
Interpretive and
descriptive

EXPERIMENTAL VS. NONEXPERIMENTAL

Experimental

Cause-and-effect
Extraneous variable
controls

Non-experimental
1.
2.
3.
4.

Causal-comparative
Descriptive
Correlational
Historical

STEPS TO
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH

1. Identifying the research question or problem

area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research
problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample

8. Designing data collection plan

9. Selecting or developing specific data
collection instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report

ASSIGNMENT 1

PART 1
Bring copies (for everyone, 4 total) of a full-text article published
recently on a topic of your interest that is related to alternative
power generation, industrial automation, motor controls, etc.
Provide a written summary (1-2 pages, double spaced, times roman
font) of your answers and answer the following questions.
Youll be asked to give a brief oral presentation (5 7 min) regarding
your article and your answers to the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

What is the research problem?

What is the purpose statement?
What were the delimitations of this study?
What were some potential limitations of this study?
What were the initial hypotheses for this study? (Optional)
Where the hypotheses rejected or accepted? (Optional)
What was the overall conclusion of this paper?
If you were to replicate this study, describe how you would do it.

QUESTIONS
1. Identify the research problem.
2. Identify the research plan.
3. How did they collect the data?

What equipment/methods/procedures did they

use?

4. How did they analyze the data?

5. Did they support or reject the original
research hypothesis? Why?

QUESTIONS
6. What were the conclusions? Future studies?
7.Identify the purpose statement.
8.Identify the hypotheses.

ADDITIONAL
QUESTIONS
1.

Re-write the title using 5 8 words.

2.

Re-write the title using 15 18 words.

3.

Provide the delimitations for this study.

4.

What are 2 examples of the limitations of this study?

5.

Does this study answer the questions of the Methods

section checklist?