Quality Management

Quality Management
Chapter One
Introduction to
Statistical Quality
Control
World's Most Expensive

Car
Toyota Model 97
Which one is Quality?
2
5
Discussion Points
1. What do you understand by the
terms:
1. Quality
2. Management
2. Which one is quality product?

a) Plastic shoe (price 20 Birr)
b) Leather shoe (Price 500 Birr)
3. How do you rate quality of

products imported from China?
6
What is quality?
The definition of quality depends on
the role of the people defining it.
Most consumers have a difficult time
defining quality, but they know it
when they see it.
There
is
no
single
definition of quality.
universal
Popular Definition of Quality

given by various quality gurus.
1."Fitness for use"; "product performance
freedom from deficiencies" (Juran)
and
2."Conformance to requirements not goodness"

(Crosby)
3."Quality should be aimed at the needs of the
customer, present and future" (Deming)
4."Meeting or exceeding customer expectations at a
cost that represents value to them" (Harrington)
5."Degree of excellence" (Webster's Third New
International Dictionary)
8
Contd
6. Quality is what the customer says
it is. (Fegenbaum)
7. The totality of features and
characteristics of a product or
service that bears on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs British Standard (BS4778).
9
Quality with the role of

the people defining it
For engineers it is conformance to
specifications.
For users it is fitness for use.
For marketing it is the degree of
excellence at an acceptable price that
will influence the market share.
For customer service a quality product
is that with less customer complaint.
10
Discussion
What common element do the

above definitions have?
11
Comprehensive Definition of
Quality
Product or service which fulfils an
aggregate
requirement
of
customers, in all aspects, at present
and in the future and which
customers can buy it.
12
Comprehensive
Definition of Quality
Exceeding Customers
Expectation
Thus the closer this conformation indicates the higher
the degree of quality.
13
Quality in Different Areas in

Society
Airlines
On-time, comfortable, low-cost service
Health Care
Correct diagnoses, minimum wait time, lower
cost, security
Food Services
Good product, fast delivery, good environment.
Postal Service
Fast delivery, correct delivery, cost containment.
14
Contd
AREA
EXAMPLES
Academia
Proper preparation for

future,
on-time
knowledge delivery.
Consumer Products
Properly made, defectfree, cost effective
Insurance
Military
Payoff
on
time,
reasonable cost.
Rapid
deployment,
decreased wages, no
15
graft.
Management
Management is the use of people
and other resources to accomplish
objectives.
Management is the process of getting
activities completed efficiently and effectively
with and through other people.
16
What is this little boy doing?

Do you know where he is going?
Can you see where he is going?
Do you know what could happen if he
falls in the water?
Have you got the big picture in mind?
With anything that one does in life you
start with the end in mind.
You decide what you want to achieve
and then you decide how you will
work towards achieving it. This is
what management is.
17
So That You and Your

Followers Can Reach
Our Vision
Put Stepping
Stones in Place
Chart the Path
18
Functions of Management
Organiz
ing
The
Functions of
Management
Sta
ffing
a
Pl
ng
i
nn
g
llin
ro
nt
Co
ing
d
a
Le
19
Definitions of TQM
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total = Quality involves everyone and
all activities in the company.
Quality
=
Conformance
to
Requirements
(Meeting
Customer
Requirements).
Management = Quality can and must
be managed.
20
Objectives of TQM
The simple objective of TQM is:
21
Contd
The quality that comes out of a process is
affected by the quality of what goes in and
what happens at every step along the
way.
22
Resources
Human
Materials
Equipment
Finance
Information
Inputs
Abilities
Planning
Organising
Leading
Control
Technology
Transformation
Processes
Outcomes
Products
Services
Profit & Losses
Employee
Growth &
Satisfaction
Outputs
Feedback from Environment

23
We can summarize the definitions

of quality based on:
1. Product Based
2. Process Based
3. User Based
4. Value Based
5. Transcendent
Some of them overlapping
24
1. Product-Based Definition
Quantity of a particular attribute
Precise and measurable
Checked through quality control
(acceptance sampling)
25
2. Process-Based Definition
Conformance to process methods
Relies on stabile, robust processes
Measurable using Statistical Process
Control (SPC)
Outcome oriented
26
3. User-Based Definition
Fitness for Use
Quality is in the eyes of the beholder
Highly subjective
Satisfaction High Quality
27
4. Value-Based Definition
Affordable Excellence
Defined in terms of cost and benefit
Highly subjective
28
5. Transcendent Definition
Know It When You See It
Synonymous with Innate Excellence
Timeless, Enduring
29
Quality Perspectives
Transcendent &
product-based
Customer
products
and
services
user-based
needs
value-based
Marketing
Design
Process based
Manufacturing
Distribution
Information flow
Product flow
30
Discussion Point
How can we measure quality of a
product?
31
Dimensions of Quality
Used as measures for the various
definitions of quality
May be used in combination
All dimensions may not apply
32
Eight Dimensions of Quality

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Performance
Reliability
Durability
Serviceability
Aesthetics
Features
Perceived Quality
Conformance
Garvin (1987)
33
34
The Dimension of Performance

Primary operating characteristics
Combines Product and User-based
definitions
Individual preference plays a role
35
The Dimension of Reliability

Probability of a product failing within a
specified period
Mean time to first failure
Mean time between failures
Failure rate per unit of time
More important for durable goods

More important as downtime and
maintenance costs increase
36
The Dimension of Durability

A measure of economic product life
Amount of use before physical deterioration
Repair versus Replacement
A close link between durability and

reliability
Product life may be related to economic
circumstances of the user
37
The Dimension of Features

Secondary characteristics
Features supplement the products basic
function
Bells and Whistles
38
The Dimension of Serviceability

Relative ease to get the product repaired
Time, Effort, Cost
Nature of the service interaction

Speed, Courtesy, Competence
Perceived effect and cost of downtime is

important
39
The Dimension of Conformance

The degree to which the product meets
specifications
Tolerances
Variable measures
Attribute measures
Traditional QC activity
Process control
Sampling techniques
40
Two Other Dimensions of

Quality
Aesthetics
The Feel Good characteristics

Form over Function
Sensory focus
Perceived Quality
The customers beliefs regarding level of
quality
41
Transformation and performance

improvement.
One kind
of
production
Mass
production
Improveme
nt
by
optimizing
the parts
Productoriented
Production focus
Agriculture
age
Machine
age
Flexible
production
Improvement by
optimizing the
whole
Processoriented
Customer Focus
Systems
age
The end of an age does not occur suddenly, rather one age
fades into the next, and is characterized by people struggling
with the problems of the age while using the tools, techniques
and practices of the past age.
42
Evolution of Quality
1950s Inspection and QC.
1960s Statistical Quality Control.
1970s Quality Assurance QA.
1980s Total Quality Management.
1990s Strategic Leadership.
2000s Values Process.
43
1700-1900 Quality is largely determined by

efforts of an individual craftsman.
1900 1930 Henry Ford developed mistake-proof
assembly concepts, self-checking, and in process
inspection.
1901 First standards laboratories established in Great
Britain.
1915 -1919 WWI British government begins a supplier
certification program.
1919 Technical inspection association is formed in
England: this later becomes Institute of QA.
44
1915 -1919 WWI British government begins

a supplier certification program.
1919 Technical inspection association is
formed in England: this later becomes
Institute of QA.
1924 W.A shewhart introduces the control
chart concept in a Bell Laboratories.
45
1928 Acceptance sampling methodology is

developed and refined by H.F Dodge and H.G
Romig.
1946-1949 Deming is invited to give SQC
seminars to Japanese industry.
1948 G. Taguchi begins study and application of
experimental design.
1950 Ishikawa introduces the cause & effect
diagram.
46
1954 Joseph M.Juran is invited by the

Japanese to lecture on quality management &
improvement.
1960 The quality control circle concept is
introduced in Japan by K. Ishikawa.
1961 National council for quality and
productivity is formed in Great Britain.
47
1987 ISO publishes the first quality systems

standard.
1975-1978 quality circle grows to TQM
movement.
1989 The Journal of quality engineering appears.
1995 many undergraduate programs require
SQC.
2000s
ISO 9000:2000 standard is issued.
48
WHAT IS THE SECRET

BEHIND THE SUCCESS OF
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS?
49
Quality products & services
Customer Satisfaction
Customer satisfaction
Survival
Competitiveness
Excellency
50
Evolution of Quality
BEM
QM
QA
QC
BEM
Systems
Process
INS
Products
QC
QA
QM
51
The Development of Quality

Management
Inspection - determining as acceptable or
unacceptable.
Quality control - determines the cause for
variations.
Example
Since variations in raw materials have large
effects on the quality of in-process materials ,
quality control includes statistical sampling
and testing before acceptance.
52
Quality control (QC)

Quality control (QC) includes the activities from
the suppliers, through production, and to the
customers.
Incoming materials are examined to make sure
they meet the appropriate specifications.
The quality of partially completed products are
analyzed to determine if production processes are
functioning properly.
Finished goods and services are studied to
determine if they meet customer expectations.
53
QC Throughout Production systems

Inputs
Raw Materials,
Parts, and
Supplies
Control Charts
and
Acceptance Tests
Quality of
Inputs
Conversion
Outputs
Production
Processes
Products and
Services
Control Charts
Control Charts
and
Acceptance Tests
Quality of
Partially Completed
Products
Quality of
Outputs
54
Question
As control becomes effective , the need for
inspection:
1. Decreases or increases?
2. Why?
Decreases b/c quality control is concerned

with making things right rather than
discovering and rejecting those made
wrong.
55
Quality Assurance
Involves prevention of quality problems through
planning and systematic action.
Includes the whole production and distribution
system starting from the supply of raw materials
through the internal management to the
customer.
Example
ISO 9001 Quality Assurance Systems
56
Structure of ISO 9001:2000

0. Introduction,
1. Scope,
2. Normative reference
3. Terms and definitions
4. Quality management system general requirements
Identify processes, documentation requirements, quality objectives,

quality manual, control of documents
5. Management responsibility
Management commitment, customer focus, quality policy, planning,

management representative, internal communication, management
review of input and output
6. Resource management
Competence, provision of resources, infrastructure, work environment, danger analysis
7. Product realization
Planning of the realization process, customer-related processes, design and development,

purchasing, production and service provision, control of monitoring and measuring devices
8. Measurement, analysis and improvement
Monitoring and measurement, control of nonconforming products, data analysis,

improvement
57
Conceptual model of ISO 9000: 2000 Quality Management

Systems
58
Where do Errors Come From?
... frequently from old habits
59
Total Quality Management

Continuous improvement
60
Whats the goal of TQM?
Do the right
things right
the first
time, every
time.
61
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TQM

Approach
Scope
Scale
Philosophy
Management Led
Company Wide
Everyone is responsible for Quality
Prevention not Detection
Standard
Right First Time
Control
Cost of Quality
Theme
On going Improvement
62
EVOLUTION OF QUALITY
Quality: Then and Now
Old Quality is:
New quality is:
Technical
About products
Led by experts
For inspectors
High grade
About control
About specifications
Strategic
About organizations
Led by management
For everyone
The appropriate grade
About improvement
About customer satisfaction
63
Discussion
Do quality have a cost?
If yes, in what way?
64
Cost of Quality
1. Cost of Achieving Good Quality
i.
Prevention costs
ii. Appraisal costs
2. Cost of Poor Quality

i.
Internal failure costs
ii. External failure costs

65
Prevention Costs
Quality planning costs
Costs of developing and
implementing
quality
management program.
Product-design costs
Costs
of
designing
products with quality
characteristics.
Process costs
Costs
expended
to
make sure productive
process conforms to
quality specifications.
Training costs
Costs of developing
and putting on quality
training programs for
employees
and
management.
Information costs
Costs of acquiring and
maintaining
data
related to quality, and
development of reports
on
quality
performance.
66
Appraisal Costs
Inspection and testing
Costs of testing and inspecting materials, parts,
and product at various stages and at the end of a
process.
Test equipment costs

Costs of maintaining equipment used in testing
quality characteristics of products.
Operator costs
Costs of time spent by operators to gather data for
testing product quality, to make equipment
adjustments to maintain quality, and to stop work
to assess quality.
67
Internal Failure Costs

Scrap costs
costs of poor-quality products
that must be discarded,
including labor, material, and
indirect costs
Rework costs
costs of fixing defective
products to conform to quality
specifications
Process failure costs

costs of determining why
production
process
is
producing
poor-quality
products
Process downtime costs

costs of shutting down
productive process to fix
problem
Price-downgrading costs
costs of discounting poorquality productsthat is,
selling products as
seconds
68
External Failure Costs

Customer complaint costs
costs of investigating and
satisfactorily responding to a
customer complaint resulting
from a poor-quality product
Product return costs

costs of handling and replacing
poor-quality products returned
by customer
Warranty claims costs

costs of complying with
product warranties
Product liability costs

litigation costs
resulting from product
liability and customer
injury
Lost sales costs

costs incurred
because customers
are dissatisfied with
poor quality products
and do not make
additional purchases
69
70
QUALITY CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
71
Statistical Process Control (SPC) Tools

The key process monitoring and investigating
tools include:
1. Histograms,
2. Check sheets,
3. Pareto charts,
4. Cause and effect diagrams,
5. Scatter diagrams, and
6. Control charts.
7. Defect concentration.
72
Histogram
The histogram is a bar chart showing a
distribution of variables.
This tool helps identify the cause of
problems in a process by shape of the
distribution as well as the width of the
distribution.
73
Steps in constructing Histogram

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Calculate the range (R)

Determine the class interval
Prepare the frequency table
Determine the class boundaries
Calculate the mid point of the class
Obtain the frequencies
74
2. Check Sheet
A check sheet is a paper form on which items to
be checked have been printed already so that
data can be collected easily and concisely.
Its main purposes are:
To make data-gathering easy
To arrange data automatically so that they can
be used easily later on.
75
Defective item check sheet
76
3.
Pareto Analysis
Pareto (80/20 principle)
Vital few defects

Trivial many defects
The Vital Few and Trivial Many Rule
77
Named after Vilfredo Pareto

-an Italian economist
He observed in 1906 that 20%
of the Italian population owned
80% of Italy's wealth
He then noticed that 20% of the
pea pods in his garden
accounted for 80% of his pea
crop each year
78
The Pareto Principle

A small number of causes is responsible for a
large percentage of the effect-usually a 20-percent to 80-percent ratio.
This basic principle translates well into quality
problems - most quality problems result from a
small number of causes.
You can apply this ratio to almost anything,
from the science of management to the physical
world
79
Number of defects observed

Type of Defect
Number of Defects
Crack
Scratch
10
42
Stain
Strain
104
Gap
Pinhole
Others
Total
20
14
200
80
Table : Data Sheet for Pareto Diagram

Type of
Defects
Number of
Defects
Cumulative
Total
Cumulative
Percentage
104
Percentage
of overall
Total
52
Strain
104
Scratch
42
146
21
73
Pinhole
20
166
10
83
Crack
10
176
88
Stain
182
91
Gap
186
93
Others
14
200
100
Total
200
100
52
81
Analyze the chart.
Figure : Pareto
Diagram by
Defective
Items
82
Question
Think about about your average day full
24 hours, start from the moment you
wakeup from bed:
List activities you perform on average day
Identify average time required for each
activity
83
Question Contd
1. How many hours wasted per day?
2. Identify major wasters?
3. Apply Pareto principle to improve your
time management.
84
4. Cause-and-Effect Diagram
A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that
helps identify, sort, and display possible
causes of a specific problem or quality
characteristic.
The diagram graphically illustrates the
relationship between a given outcome and all
the factors that influence the outcome.
85
Cause-and-Effect
(contd)
It is used when we need to:

Identify the possible root causes, the basic
reasons, for a
specific effect, problem, or
condition.
Sort out and relate some of the interactions
among the factors affecting a particular
process or effect.
Analyze existing problems so that corrective
action can be taken.
86
Figure : Cause and Effect Diagram

87
Figure : Cause and Effect Diagram
88
Question
Ethiopia is a nation of 3,000 years
history, but it still lack the capacity to feed
its citizens.
Use cause and effect diagram to identify the
root causes of this problem?
89
5.
Scatter Diagram
The scatter diagram is a technique used to

study the relation of two corresponding variables.
The two variables deal with are:
1.A quality characteristic and a factor
affecting it,
2.Two related quality characteristics, or
3.Two factors relating to a single quality
characteristic.
90
Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient computed
from the sample data measures the
strength and direction of a relationship
between two variables.
Sample correlation coefficient, r.
Population correlation coefficient,
91
Formula for the Correlation

Coefficient r
n xy x y
n x x n y y
Where n is the number of data pairs

92
Range of Values for the

Correlation Coefficient
Strong negative
relationship
No linear
relationship
Strong positive
relationship
93
Types of scatter diagram
94
Chapter Two
Theory of Control Charts
95
Quality Control
Introduction to control charts
96
Introduction
Statistical process control is a
collection of tools that when used
together can result in process
stability and variability reduction.
97
Introduction
The seven major tools are
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Histogram
Check Sheet
Flow Diagram
Pareto Chart
Cause and Effect Diagram
Scatter Diagram
Control Chart
98
Question
The
famous
quality
teacher
W.Edward Deming once said:
If I have to reduce my massage to
management to just a few words I
will say it all had to do with
reducing variation.
What does that mean?
99
Variation
There is no two natural items in any
category are the same.
Variation may be quite large or very
small.
If variation very small, it may appear
that items are identical, but precision
instruments will show differences.
100
Chance and Assignable Causes

of Quality Variation
A process that is operating with only
chance causes of variation present is said
to be in statistical control.
A process that is operating in the
presence of assignable causes is said to
be out of control.
The eventual goal of SPC is reduction or
elimination of variability in the process by
identification of assignable causes.
101
Source of variation
Equipment
Tool wear, machine vibration,
Material
Raw material quality
Environment
Temperature, pressure, humidity
Operator
Operator performs- physical & emotional
102
Chance and Assignable Causes

of Quality Variation
103
Statistical Basis of the Control

Chart
Basic Principles
The control chart is a graph used to study how

a process changes over time.
A typical control chart has control limits set at
values such that if the process is in control,
nearly all points will lie between the upper
control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit
(LCL).
104

Chart
In - Control
Out of Control
105

Chart
Out-of-Control Situations
If at least one point plots beyond the

control limits, the process is out of
control.
If the points behave in a systematic
or nonrandom manner, then the
process could be out of control.
106

Chart
We have a process that we assume the true
process mean is = 74 and the process
standard deviation is = 0.01.
Samples of size 5 are taken giving a standard
deviation of the sample average, x , as
0.01
x
0.0045
n
5
107

Chart
Control limits can be set at 3
standard deviations from the mean.
This results in 3-Sigma Control
Limits
UCL = 74 + 3(0.0045) = 74.0135
CL= 74
LCL = 74 - 3(0.0045) = 73.9865
108

Chart
109
Important uses of the control

chart
Routine and attentive use of control charts will
identify assignable causes. If these causes can
be eliminated from the process, variability will
be reduced and the process will be improved.
The control chart only detects assignable
causes.
Management, operator,
and
engineering action will be necessary to
eliminate the assignable causes.
Out-of-control action plans (OCAPs) are an
important aspect of successful control chart
usage.
110
Types the control chart

1. Variables Control Charts
These charts are applied to data that follow
a continuous distribution (measurement
data).
Example : length, weight,
temperature or time.
volume,
pressure,
2. Attributes Control Charts

These charts are applied to data that follow
a discrete distribution.
Example : good/bad, conforming/non-conforming,
or acceptable/not acceptable.
111
112
Popularity of control charts

1. Control charts are a proven technique for
improving productivity.
2. Control charts are effective in defect
prevention.
3. Control charts prevent unnecessary process
adjustment.
4. Control charts provide diagnostic information.
5. Control charts provide information about
process capability.
113
Choice of Control Limits

General model of a control chart
UCL W L W
Center Line W
LCL W L W
where L = distance of the control limit from
the center line
W
= mean of the sample statistic, w.
W
= standard deviation of the statistic, w.
114

99.7% of the Data
If approximately 99.7% of the data lies

within 3
of the mean (i.e., 99.7% of
the data should lie within the control
limits), then 1 - 0.997 = 0.003 or 0.3%
of the data can fall outside 3 (or 0.3% of
the data lies outside the control limits).
(Actually, we should use the more exact
value 0.0027)
115

Three-Sigma Limits
The use of 3-sigma limits generally gives

good results in practice.
If the distribution of the quality
characteristic
is
reasonably
well
approximated by the normal distribution,
then the use of 3-sigma limits is
applicable.
These limits are often referred to as
action limits.
116

Warning Limits on Control Charts
Warning limits (if used) are typically set at 2

standard deviations from the mean.
If one or more points fall between the warning
limits and the control limits, or close to the warning
limits the process may not be operating properly.
Good thing: warning limits often increase the
sensitivity of the control chart.
Bad thing: warning limits could result in an
increased risk of false alarms.
117
Sample Size and Sampling

Frequency
In designing a control chart, both
the sample size to be selected and
the frequency of selection must be
specified.
Larger samples make it easier to
detect small shifts in the process.
Current practice tends to favor
smaller, more frequent samples.
118
Control Charts For Variables
119
Introduction
Variable - a single quality characteristic
that can be measured on a numerical
scale.
When working with variables, we

should monitor both the mean value of
the characteristic and the variability
associated with the characteristic.
120
Control charts for
variables
X-bar chart
In this chart the sample means are plotted in order
to control the mean value of a variable (e.g., size
of piston rings, strength of materials, etc.).
R chart
In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in
order to control the variability of a variable.
S chart
In this chart, the sample standard deviations are
plotted in order to control the variability of a
variable.
S2 chart
In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in
order to control the variability of a variable.
121
Control Charts for
x and R
Notation for variables control charts

n - size of the sample (sometimes called a
subgroup) chosen at a point in time
m - number of samples selected
x i = average of the observations in the ith
sample (where i = 1, 2, ..., m)
x
= grand average or average of the
averages (this value is used as the center
line of the control chart)
122
Control Charts for x and R

Notation and values
Ri = range of the values in the ith sample
Ri = xmax - xmin
R = average range for all m samples
is the true process mean
is the true process standard deviation
123
Steps to construct X-bar and R- charts

Step 1 . Collect the data
Step 2. Calculate x-bar
Step 3. Calculate x-double bar
Step 4. Calculate R
R = X highest value X lowest value
Step 5. Calculate R-bar

Step 6. Calculate the control lines
Step 7. Draw the control lines
Step 8. Plot the points
Step 9. Write the necessary items
124

Statistical Basis of the Charts
Assume the quality characteristic of interest is
normally distributed with mean , and
standard deviation, .
If x1, x2, , xn is a sample of size n, then the
average of this sample is
x1 x 2 x n
x
n
x is normally distributed with mean, , and
standard deviation,
x / n
125

Statistical Basis of the Charts
The probability is 1 - that any sample mean will fall between
Z / 2 x Z / 2
and
The above can

be used
upper and lower control limits on a
Z / 2 as
x Z / 2
control chart for sample means, if the nprocess parameters are
known.
126
Control Charts for

Control Limits for the
x and R
xchart
UCL x A 2 R
Center Line x
LCL x A 2 R
A2 is found from table for various values of n.
127
Control Charts for
x and R
Control Limits for the R chart
UCL D4 R
Center Line R
LCL D3 R
D3 and D4 are found from table for various values of
n.
128
Example: Control Charts for Variable Data

Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
5.02
5.01
4.99
5.03
4.95
4.97
5.05
5.09
5.14
5.01
Slip
2
5.01
5.03
5.00
4.91
4.92
5.06
5.01
5.10
5.10
4.98
Ring Diameter (cm)

3
4
5
4.94 4.99 4.96
5.07 4.95 4.96
4.93 4.92 4.99
5.01 4.98 4.89
5.03 5.05 5.01
5.06 4.96 5.03
5.10 4.96 4.99
5.00 4.99 5.08
4.99 5.08 5.09
5.08 5.07 4.99
129
Example: Control Charts for Variable Data

Slip
Sample
1
2
1
5.02 5.01
2
5.01 5.03
3
4.99 5.00
4
5.03 4.91
5
4.95 4.92
6
4.97 5.06
7
5.05 5.01
8
5.09 5.10
9
5.14 5.10
10
5.01 4.98
50.09 1.15
Ring Diameter (cm)

3
4
5
X
4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98
5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00
4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97
5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96
5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99
5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01
5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02
5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05
4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08
5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03
R
0.08
0.12
0.08
0.14
0.13
0.10
0.14
0.11
0.15
0.10
130
Control Charts for
= 5.009
From table
and R
= 0.115
A2= 0.577, D3= 0, D4= 2.115
Control limit for X-bar chart Control limit for RUCL x A 2 R

Chart
Center Line x
LCL x A 2 R
Note:
The control limits are only preliminary with 10 samples.
It is desirable to have at least 25 samples.
131
3-Sigma Control Chart Factors
Sample size
n
X-chart
A2
R-chart
D3
D4
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.88
1.02
0.73
0.58
0.48
0.42
0.37
0
0
0
0
0
0.08
0.14
3.27
2.57
2.28
2.11
2.00
1.92
1.86
132
Trial control limit

UCLx-bar = 5.009 + (0.577)(0.115) =
5.075cm
LCLx-bar = 5.009 - (0.577)(0.115) = 4.943
cm
UCLR = (2.114)(0.115) = 0.243 cm
LCLR = (0)(0.115) = 0 cm
For A2, D3, D4: see Table
n=5
133
X-bar Chart
134
R Chart
135
Control Charts for
x and R
Estimating the Process Standard

Deviation
The process standard deviation can be
estimated using a function of the sample
average range.
R

d2
This is an unbiased estimator of
136
Control Charts for
x and R
Trial Control Limits

The control limits obtained from the above equations
should be treated as trial control limits.
If this process is in control for the m samples
collected, then the system was in control in the past.
If all points plot inside the control limits and no
systematic behavior is identified, then the process
was in control in the past, and the trial control limits
are suitable for controlling current or future
production.
137
Control Charts for
x and R
Trial control limits and the out-of-control

process
If points plot out of control, then the control limits
must be revised.
Before revising, identify out of control points and
look for assignable causes.
If assignable causes can be found, then discard the
point(s) and recalculate the control limits.
If no assignable causes can be found then
1) either discard the point(s) as if an assignable cause had
been found or
2) retain the point(s) considering the trial control limits as
appropriate for current control.
138
Control Charts for
x and R
Control Limits, Specification Limits, and

Natural Tolerance Limits
Control limits are functions of the natural
variability of the process
Natural tolerance limits represent the
natural variability of the process (usually
set at 3-sigma from the mean)
Specification limits are determined by
developers/designers.
139
Question
Is
there
a
mathematical
relationship between control limits
and specification limits?
140
Control Charts for
x and R
Control Limits, Specification Limits, and

Natural Tolerance Limits
There is no mathematical relationship
between control limits and specification
limits.
Do not plot specification limits on the
charts
141

Rational Subgroups
X bar chart monitors the between

sample variability
R chart monitors the within sample
variability.
142
Control Charts for
x and R
Guidelines for the Design of the Control Chart
Specify sample size, control limit width, and

frequency of sampling.
If the main purpose of the x-bar chart is to
detect moderate to large process shifts, then
small sample sizes are sufficient (n = 4, 5, or 6)
If the main purpose of the x-bar chart is to
detect small process shifts, larger sample sizes
are needed (as much as 15 to 25)which is
often impracticalalternative types of control
charts are available for this situation.
143
Control Charts for
x and R
If increasing the sample size is not an

option, then sensitizing procedures (such
as warning limits) can be used to detect
small shiftsbut this can result in
increased false alarms.
R chart is insensitive to shifts in process
standard deviation.(the range method
becomes less effective as the sample size
increases) may want to use S or S2 chart
144

Allocating Sampling Effort
Choose a larger sample size and sample

less frequently? or, Choose a smaller
sample size and sample more frequently?
The method to use will depend on the
situation.
In general, small frequent
samples are more desirable.
145
Example 2: Given
UCLData X-Dbar LCLX-bar
Subgro
up
X1
X2
X3
X4
6.35
6.4
6.32
6.37
6.36
6.47
6.41
6.46
6.37
6.36
6.41
6.4
6.47
6.34
6.4
6.34
6.36
6.36
6.69
6.64
6.68
6.59
6.38
6.34
6.44
6.42
6.41
6.44
UCL-R
R-bar
LCL-R
6.35
0.08
0.20
0.0876
6.41
6.35
0.1
0.20
0.0876
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.06
0.20
0.0876
6.65
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.1
0.20
0.0876
6.4
6.39
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.1
0.20
0.0876
6.43
6.34
6.4
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.09
0.20
0.0876
6.41
6.41
6.46
6.43
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.05
0.20
0.0876
6.33
6.41
6.38
6.36
6.37
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.08
0.20
0.0876
6.48
6.44
6.47
6.45
6.46
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.04
0.20
0.0876
10
6.47
6.43
6.36
6.42
6.42
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.11
0.20
0.0876
11
6.38
6.41
6.39
6.38
6.39
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.03
0.20
0.0876
12
6.37
6.37
6.41
6.37
6.38
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.04
0.20
0.0876
13
6.4
6.38
6.47
6.35
6.4
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.12
0.20
0.0876
14
6.38
6.39
6.45
6.42
6.41
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.07
0.20
0.0876
15
6.5
6.42
6.43
6.45
6.45
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.08
0.20
0.0876
16
6.33
6.35
6.29
6.39
6.34
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.1
0.20
0.0876
17
6.41
6.4
6.29
6.34
6.36
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.12
0.20
0.0876
18
6.38
6.44
6.28
6.58
6.42
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.3
0.20
0.0876
19
6.35
6.41
6.37
6.38
6.38
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.06
0.20
0.0876
20
6.56
6.55
6.45
6.48
6.51
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.11
0.20
0.0876
21
6.38
6.4
6.45
6.37
6.4
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.08
0.20
0.0876
22
6.39
6.42
6.35
6.4
6.39
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.07
0.20
0.0876
23
6.42
6.39
6.39
6.36
6.39
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.06
0.20
0.0876
24
6.43
6.36
6.35
6.38
6.38
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.08
0.20
0.0876146
25
6.39
6.38
6.43
6.44
6.41
6.47
6.41
6.35
0.06
0.20
0.0876
X-bar
X-bar
Calculation
From Table above:
Sigma X-bar = 160.25
Sigma R = 2.19
m = 25
Thus;
X-double bar = 160.25/29 = 6.41 mm
R-bar = 2.19/25 = 0.0876 mm
147
Trial control limit

UCLx-bar = X-double bar + A2R-bar =
6.41 + (0.729)(0.0876) = 6.47 mm
LCLx-bar = X-double bar - A2R-bar = 6.41
(0.729)(0.0876) = 6.35 mm
UCLR = D4R-bar = (2.282)(0.0876) =
0.20 mm
LCLR = D3R-bar = (0)(0.0876) = 0 mm
For A2, D3, D4: see Table B Appendix, n = 4.
148
X-bar Chart
149
R Chart
150
Revised CL & Control Limits

Calculation based on discarding subgroup 4 &
20 (X-bar chart) and subgroup 18 for R chart:
X X
X new
m mm
md
= 6.40
= (160.25 - 6.65 - 6.51)/(25-2)
RR
= (2.19 - 0.30)/25 - 1
Rnew
= 0.079
m m=d 0.08 mm
d
151
New Control Limits

New value:
X o X new ,
RO
Ro Rnew , o
d2
Using standard value, CL & 3 control limit

obtained using formula:
UCLX X o A o ,
LCLX X o A o
UCLR D2 o ,
LCLR D1 o
152
From Table B:
A = 1.500 for a subgroup size of 4,
d2 = 2.059, D1 = 0, and D2 = 4.698
Calculation results:
X o X new 6.40mm
Ro Rnew 0.079,
Ro 0.079
0.038 mm
d 2 2.059
UCL X X o A o 6.40 (1.500)(0.038) 6.46 mm
LCL X X o A o 6.40 (1.500)(0.038) 6.34 mm

UCLR D2 o (4.698)(0.038) 0.18 mm
LCLR D1 o (0)(0.038) 0 mm
153
Trial Control Limits & Revised Control Limit

Revised control limits
UCL = 6.46
CL = 6.40
LCL = 6.34
UCL = 0.18
CL = 0.08
LCL = 0
154
CONTROL CHARTS FOR

ATTRIBUTES
155
Introduction
Data that can be classified into one of
several categories or classifications is
known as attribute data.
Classifications such as conforming and
nonconforming are commonly used in
quality control.
Another example of attributes data is the
count of defects.
156
Control Charts for Attributes

p chart fraction defective
np chart number defective
c, u charts number of defects
157
Defect vs. Defective

Defect a single nonconforming
quality characteristic.
Defective items having one or
more defects.
158
Control Charts for Fraction

Nonconforming
Fraction nonconforming is the ratio of
the number of nonconforming items
in a population to the total number of
items in that population.
Control
charts
for
fraction
nonconforming are based on the
binomial distribution.
159

Nonconforming
Recall: A quality characteristic follows a
binomial distribution if:
1. All trials are independent.
2. Each outcome is either a success or
failure.
3. The probability of success on any trial is
given as p. The probability of a failure is
1-p.
4. The probability of a success is constant.
160

Nonconforming
The
binomial
distribution
with
parameters n 0 and 0 < p < 1, is
given by
n x
nx
p( x ) p (1 p)
x
The mean and variance
binomial distribution are
np
of
the
np(1 p)
2
161

Nonconforming
Development of the Fraction
Nonconforming Control Chart
Assume
n = number of units of product selected at random.
D = number of nonconforming units from the
sample
p= probability of selecting a nonconforming unit
from the sample.
Then:
n x
P(D x ) p (1 p) n x
x
162

Nonconforming
Development of the Fraction
Nonconforming Control Chart
The sample fraction nonconforming is
given as
D
p
n
is a random variable with mean

where p
and variance
p(1 p)
2
n
163

Nonconforming
Standard Given
If a standard value of p is given, then the
control limits for the fraction nonconforming
are
p(1 p)
UCL p 3
n
CL p
p(1 p)
LCL p 3
n
164

Nonconforming
No Standard Given
If no standard value of p is given, then
the control limits for the fraction
nonconforming are
p (1 p )
n
UCL p 3
CL p
where
LCL p 3
m
Di
i 1
mn
p (1 p )
n
m
p i
i 1
m
165

Nonconforming
Trial Control Limits
Control limits that are based on a
preliminary set of data can often be
referred to as trial control limits.
The quality characteristic is plotted
against the trial limits, if any points plot
out of control, assignable causes should
be investigated and points removed.
With removal of the points, the limits are
then recalculated.
166

Nonconforming
Example
A process that produces bearing housings
is investigated. Ten samples of size 100
are selected.
Sample #
# Nonconf.
1
5
2
2
3
3
4
8
5
4
6
1
7
2
8
6
9
3
10
4
Is this process operating in statistical

control?
167

Nonconforming
Example
n = 100, m = 10
Sample #
# Nonconf.
Fraction
Nonconf.
1
5
2
2
3
3
4
8
5
4
6
1
7
2
8
6
9
3
10
4
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.08
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.04
i
p
i 1
0.038
168

Nonconforming
Example
Control Limits are:
0.038(1 0.038)
UCL 0.038 3
0.095
100
CL 0.038
0.038(1 0.038)
LCL 0.038 3
0.02 0
100
169

Nonconforming
Example
P Chart for C1
Proportion
0.10
3.0SL=0.09536
0.05
P=0.03800
0.00
- 3.0SL=0.000
0
10
Sampl e Number
170

Nonconforming
Design of the Fraction Nonconforming
Control Chart
The sample size can be determined so that a shift of
some specified amount, can be detected with a
stated level of probability (50% chance of
detection). If is the magnitude of a process shift,
then n must satisfy:
Therefore,
p(1 p)
L
n
2
L
n
p(1 p)

171

Nonconforming
Positive Lower Control Limit
The sample size n, can be chosen so that
the lower control limit would be nonzero:
and
p(1 p)
LCL p L
0
n
(1 p) 2
n
L
p
172

Nonconforming
Interpretation of Points on the Control
Chart for Fraction Nonconforming
Care must be exercised in interpreting
points that plot below the lower control
limit.
They often do not indicate a real improvement

in process quality.
They are frequently caused by errors in the
inspection process or improperly calibrated test
and inspection equipment.
173

Nonconforming
The np control chart
The actual number of nonconforming can

also be charted. Let n = sample size, p =
proportion of nonconforming. The control
limits are:
UCL np 3 np(1 p)
CL np
LCL np 3 np(1 p)
(if a standard, p, is not given, use p )

174
Control Charts for Nonconformities

(Defects)
Poisson Distribution
The number of nonconformities in a given area can

be modeled by the Poisson distribution. Let c be
the parameter for a Poisson distribution, then the
mean and variance of the Poisson distribution are
equal to the value c.
The probability of obtaining x nonconformities on a
single inspection unit, when the average number of
nonconformities is some constant, c, is found
using:
eccx
p( x )
x!
175
Procedures with Constant

Sample Size
c-chart
Standard Given:
UCL c 3 c
CL c
LCL c 3 c
No Standard Given:
UCL c 3 c
CL c
LCL c 3 c
176
Procedures with Constant

Sample Size
Choice of Sample Size: The u Chart
If we find c total nonconformities in a sample of n

inspection units, then the average number of
nonconformities per inspection unit is u = c/n.
The control limits for the average number of
nonconformities is
u
UCL u 3
n
CL u
u
LCL u 3
n
177
Procedures with Variable Sample

Size
Three Approaches for Control Charts
with Variable Sample Size
1. Variable Width Control Limits
2. Control Limits Based on Average Sample
Size
3. Standardized Control Chart
178
Procedures with Variable

Sample Size
Variable Width Control Limits
Determine control limits for each
individual sample that are based on the
specific sample size.
The upper and lower control limits are
u
u3
ni
179
Procedures with Variable

Sample Size
Control Limits Based on an Average
Sample Size
Control charts based on the average
sample size results in an approximate set
of control limits.
The average sample
m size is given by
ni
n i 1
m
The upper and lower control limits are
u
u3
n
180
Procedures with Variable Sample

Size
The Standardized Control Chart
The points plotted are in terms of
standard
deviation
units.
The
standardized control chart has the follow
properties:
Centerline at 0
UCL = 3
LCL = -3
The points plotted are given by:
ui u
zi
u
ni
181
Demerit Systems
When several less severe or minor
defects can occur, we may need
some
system
for
classifying
nonconformities
or
defects
according to severity; or to weigh
various types of defects in some
reasonable manner.
182
Demerit Systems
Demerit Schemes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Class
Class
Class
Class
A Defects - very serious

B Defects - serious
C Defects - Moderately serious
D Defects - Minor
Let ciA, ciB, ciC, and ciD represent the number

of units in each of the four classes.
183
Demerit Systems
Demerit Schemes
The following weights are fairly popular in
practice:
Class A-100, Class B - 50, Class C 10, Class D 1
di = 100ciA + 50ciB + 10ciC + ciD

di - the number of demerits in an inspection unit
184
Demerit Systems
Control Chart Development
Number of demerits per unit:
D
ui
n
where n = number of inspection
units
n
D = d i
i 1
185
Demerit Systems
Control Chart Development
UCL u 3 u
CL u
LCL u 3 u
where
and
u 100u A 50u B 10u C u D
100 u A 50 u B 10 u C u D
u
1/ 2
186
The Operating-Characteristic
Function
The OC curve (and thus the P(Type II
Error)) can be obtained for the c- and
u-chart using the Poisson distribution.
For the c-chart:
P (xx follows
UCL| ca) Poisson
P ( X distribution
LCL| c )
where
with parameter c (where c is the true
mean number of defects).
187
The Operating-Characteristic
Function
For the u-chart:
P( x UCL | u ) P( x LCL | u )
P(c nUCL | u ) P(c nLCL | u )
188
189
Gurus of TQM
Dr. W E Deming
Dr. J M Juran
Dr. Philip Crosby
190
Gurus of TQM
Dr. Genichi Taguchi
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa
Dr. Masaaki Imai
191
Gurus of TQM
Dr. Shigeo ShingoDr. Yoshio KondoDr .Armand V. Feigenbaum

Dr. James Harrington
192
W Edwards Deming (1900-1993)

the key to quality: reducing variation
Electrical Engineering,
University of Wyoming, 1921
PhD, Yale University
Western Electric Hawthorne, Chicago
US census statistician, 1939/40
Teaching Shewhart methods, 1942
invited to Japan after the war ....
Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position, 1982
Out of the Crisis, 1986/88
193
W Edwards Deming
Regarded by the Japanese as the chief
architect of their industrial success
All processes are vulnerable to loss of
quality through variation: if levels of
variation are managed, they can be
decreased and quality raised
Quality is about people, not products
194
The Deming (PDCA) Cycle

PLAN
ACT
Plan a change to the process. Predict

the effect this change will have and
plan how the effects will be measured
Adopt the change as a

permanent modification
to the process, or
abandon it.
DO
Implement the change

on a small scale and
measure the effects
CHECK
Study the results to

learn what effect the
change had, if any.
195
W Edwards Deming
Core element is the management circle
planning
do/implementation
check/study
action
PDCA (or PISA) cycle
Continuous improvement
teamwork and competence in problem solving
196
W Edwards Deming
Out of the Crisis (1984)
having a satisfied customer is not enough
profit in business comes from
repeat customers
customers that boast about your product and
service
customers that bring friends with them
necessary to anticipate customer needs

197
W Edwards Deming
fourteen points
1 Create constancy of purpose
for continual improvement of products and service
2 Adopt the new philosophy
3 Cease dependence on mass inspection
build quality into the product
4 End lowest tender contract:
require meaningful quality along with price
5 Improve constantly and forever every process
for planning, production and service
198
W Edwards Deming
fourteen points
6 institute modern methods of training on the job
for all, including management
7 adopt and institute leadership
aimed at helping people do a better job
8 drive out fear
encourage effective two-way communication
9 break down barriers
between departments and staff areas
10 eliminate exhortations for the workforce
they only create adversarial relationships
199
W Edwards Deming
fourteen points
11 eliminate quotas and numerical targets
substitute aid and helpful leadership
12 remove barriers to pride of workmanship
including annual appraisals
and management by objectives
13 encourage education and self improvement
for everyone
14 define top management permanent commitment
to ever improving quality and productivity
and their obligation to implement all these principles
200
Joseph Juran (1904-2008)

company wide quality cannot be delegated
Western Electric manufacturing, 1920s

AT&T manufacturing
Quality Control Handbook, 1951
Management of Quality courses
Juran on Planning for Quality, 1988
died aged 103 of natural causes
201
Joseph Juran
Structure CWQM concept:
Company-Wide Quality Management
Essential for senior managers to
involve themselves
define the goals
assign responsibilities
measure progress
202
Joseph Juran
Empowerment of the workforce
Quality linked to human relations and
teamwork
Key elements
Identifying customers and their needs

Creating measurements of quality
Planning processes to meet quality goals
Continuous improvements
203
Philip Crosby (1926-2001)

conformance to requirements
Martin missiles
QM at ITT, then corporate VP
1979: Quality is Free
Philip Crosby Associates Inc.
1984: Quality without Tears
Do It Right First Time
Zero Defects
204
Philip Crosby
Four absolutes of quality management
Quality is defined as conformance to
requirements, not as goodness or elegance
The system for creating quality is prevention,
not appraisal
The performance standard must be Zero
defects, not thats close enough
The measurement of quality is the Price of
Nonconformance, not indices
205
Philip Crosby
1992: Quality, meaning getting everyone
to do what they have agreed to do and to
do it right first time is the skeletal structure
of an organization, finance is the
nourishment and relationships are the
soul
206
Philip Crosby
Manufacturing companies spend
around 20% of revenue doing things
wrong, then doing them over again
Service companies may spend 35% of
operating expenses in a similar way
207
Four Absolutes of Quality

Management (Crosby, 1979)
Cost of Quality classified as:

Prevention costs
Appraisal costs
Failure costs
208
Cost of Quality: prevention costs
design reviews
product qualification
drawing checking
engineering quality orientation
supplier evaluations
supplier quality seminars
specification review
process capability studies
tool control
operation training
quality orientation
acceptance planning
zero defects programme
Quality Audits
preventative maintenance
209
Cost of Quality: appraisal costs

prototype inspection and test
production specification conformance
analysis
supplier surveillance
receiving inspection and test
product acceptance
process control acceptance
packaging inspection
status measurement and reporting
210
Cost of Quality: failure costs

consumer affairs
redesign
engineering change order
purchasing change order
corrective action costs
rework
scrap
warranty
service after service
product liability
211
Shigeo Shingo (1909-1990)

Poka-Yoke: mistake-proofing
1930: ME degree from Yamanashi Tech
Taipei Railway Factory, Taiwan
consultant with Japan Management Ass n
1955: training at Toyota Motor Company
1959: Institute of Management Improvement
1961-64: concept of Poka-Yoke
212
Shigeo Shingo
Poka-Yoke: mistake-proofing
identify errors before they become defects
stop the process whenever a defect occurs,
define the source and prevent recurrence
1967: source inspection + improved PY

prevented the worker from making errors
so that defects could not occur
Zero Quality Control
213
Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-1989)

Pareto and cause-and-effect diagrams
1939: engineering. graduate
(Tokyo University)
1947: Assistant Professor
1955-60: Company-wide QC movement
1960: Professor (Tokyo University)
214
Kaoru Ishikawa
quality does not only mean
the quality of the product,
but also of after sales service,
quality of management,
the company itself
and human life
215
Kaoru Ishikawa (points 1-7 of 15)

product quality is improved and becomes
uniform. Defects are reduced
reliability of goods is improved
cost is reduced
quantity of production is increased,
rational production schedules are possible
wasteful work and rework are reduced
technique is established and improved
inspection and testing costs are reduced
216
Kaoru Ishikawa (points 8-15 of 15)
rational contracts between vendor/vendee

sales market is enlarged
better relationships between departments
false data and reports are reduced
freer, more democratic discussions
smoother operation of meetings
more rational repairs and installation
improved human relations
217
Yoshio Kondo (b.1924)

motivation of employees is important
1945: graduated from Kyoto University
1961: doctorate in engineering & Prof
1987 Emeritus Professor
1989: Human Motivation
- a key factor for management
1993: Companywide Quality Control

leadership is central to implementation of TQM
218
Yoshio Kondo
Human work should include:
creativity
the joy of thinking
physical activity
the joy of working with sweat on the forehead
sociality
the joy of sharing pleasure and pain with
colleagues
219
Yoshio Kondo
Four points of action
to support motivation
when giving work instruction,
clarify the true aims of the work
see that people have a strong sense
of responsibility towards their work
give time for the creation of ideas
nurture ideas and bring them to fruition
220
Yoshio Kondo
Leaders must have
a dream (vision and shared goals)
strength of will and tenacity of purpose
ability to win the support of followers
ability to do more than their followers,
without interfering when they can do it alone
successes
ability to give the right advice
221
Taiichi Ohno (1912-1990)

graduated with mech eng degree from Nogoya
worked for the Toyoda Weaving Company
1939: Toyota Motor as machine shop manager
1988: Workplace Management ~ just-in-time
and Toyota Production System
(later known as Lean Manufacturing).
regarded as the father of
Just-In-Time (JIT) at Toyota.
222
Ohno: seven forms of waste

overproduction
waiting
transportation
motion
inventory
defects
overprocessing
223
The End
224

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Quality Management

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Quality Management

World's Most Expensive

Which one is Quality?

2. Which one is quality product?

3. How do you rate quality of

Popular Definition of Quality

2."Conformance to requirements not goodness"

Quality with the role of

What common element do the

Quality in Different Areas in

Proper preparation for

Properly made, defectfree, cost effective

What is this little boy doing?

So That You and Your

Feedback from Environment

We can summarize the definitions

Eight Dimensions of Quality

The Dimension of Performance

The Dimension of Reliability

More important for durable goods

The Dimension of Durability

A close link between durability and

The Dimension of Features

The Dimension of Serviceability

Nature of the service interaction

Perceived effect and cost of downtime is

The Dimension of Conformance

Two Other Dimensions of

The Feel Good characteristics

Transformation and performance

1700-1900 Quality is largely determined by

1915 -1919 WWI British government begins

1928 Acceptance sampling methodology is

1954 Joseph M.Juran is invited by the

1987 ISO publishes the first quality systems

ISO 9000:2000 standard is issued.

WHAT IS THE SECRET

Quality products & services

The Development of Quality

Quality control (QC)

QC Throughout Production systems

Decreases b/c quality control is concerned

Structure of ISO 9001:2000

Identify processes, documentation requirements, quality objectives,

Management commitment, customer focus, quality policy, planning,

Competence, provision of resources, infrastructure, work environment, danger analysis

Planning of the realization process, customer-related processes, design and development,

8. Measurement, analysis and improvement

Monitoring and measurement, control of nonconforming products, data analysis,

Conceptual model of ISO 9000: 2000 Quality Management

Where do Errors Come From?

... frequently from old habits

Total Quality Management

Whats the goal of TQM?

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TQM

Right First Time

Old Quality is:

New quality is:

ii. Appraisal costs

2. Cost of Poor Quality

Internal failure costs

ii. External failure costs

Test equipment costs

Internal Failure Costs