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Eukaryotes genomes;
Divided into two or more linear DNA molecules.
Each contained in a different chromosome.
Possess smaller, usually circular, mitochondrial
genomes.
Third genome located in the chloroplast (in plant and
other photosynthetic organism)
10 Mb 100,000 Mb in length.
Higher eukaryotes need larger genome to
accommodate the extra genes.
Correlation between genome size and complexity (???)
--- C-value paradox.
Space is saved in the gnomes of less complex
organism because the genes are more closely packed
together.
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Prokaryotes genomes:
Whole prokaryotes genomes are smaller than
eukaryotes.
Most if not all -- are contained in a single DNA
molecules.
The molecule is circular.
Have second circular or linear genome, called
PLASMID.
Have fewer genes
More compact genome organization, more gene but
less space.
There is NO INTRONS (some exception is in
archaea.)
Infrequency of repetitive sequences.
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upstream
Initiation codon
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downstream
termination codon
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Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes,
and Virus Size
More
than 500 viruses could fit inside
a single bacterial cell.
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Virion Structure
Lipid Envelope
Nucleic Acid
Protein
Capsid
Virion
Associated
Polymerase
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Spike
Projections
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VIRAL
SHAPE
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Helical Viruses
Rabies Virus
Measles Virus
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Icosahedron
Herpes virus
parvovirus
Icosahedron polyhedron
with 20 triangular faces
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poliovirus
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Complex
smallpox
Influenza
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virus
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Bacteriophage
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Components of Viruses
1.
Genome
nucleic acid core of the virus
Consists of either DNA or RNA
2.
Capsid
outer protein coat of the virus
Formed from smaller protein units called capsomeres
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Components of Viruses
3. Envelope
Enclosing structure, similar to the membrane that
encloses a cell
Acquired at last stage of replication
4. Spikes
Projections from envelope
Helps virus contact host cell
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VIRUS GENOMES
Is more varied than any other kingdoms
Single / double strand
Linear / circular / segmented
Single strand virus genome may be:
Positive (+) sense (the same polarity as mRNA)
Negative (-) sense (need virus-specific polymerase)
ambisense (mixture of the two)
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Reverse-Transcribing
Viruses
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Infection
Transfection
Purified
Nucleic acids
(DNA or (+)RNA)
Infectious
Virus particle
Host cells
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Influenza virus
Segmented
8 segments
negative-sense RNA
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Gemini virus
Bipartite
Two molecules
Ds-DNA
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DNA viruses
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RNA viruses
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Replication of viruses :
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Proses
replikasi
Virus Influenza
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Peran HA
pada proses
infeksi
Segmen
genome
berada di
dalam sel
host naked
& free
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Cryptococcus
Malassezia
Mucor
Rhizopus
Absidia
Saksenaea
Cunninghamella
Entomophthora
Basidiobolus
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MAN
Candida
Trichosporon
Acremonium
Exophiala
Bipolaris
Deuteromycetes
(fungi imperfecti)
Histoplasma
Blastomyces
Aspergillus
Trichophyton
Epidermophyton
Microsporum
Sporothrix
Pseudallescheria
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s
c
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m
y
c
e
t
e
s
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Mold form
Yeast form
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M. tuberculosis
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Rifampisin (RIF)
Action: Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.
RNA polymerase: 4 subunit: ; ; ;
Genes : rpoA; rpoB; rpoC; rpoD
Target: bind to the subunit resulting in transcription
inhibition
Mutation in the rpoB gene responsible to rifampisin
resistance.
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Isoniazid (INH)
Action and target: Not clearly known
Candidate; INH or INH metabolite block the synthesis
of mycolic acids.
Genes : katG. Encoding catalase-peroxidase enzym
INH resistance MTB had decreased catalase activity.
Mutation in the katG gene responsible to isoniazid
resistance.
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Isoniazid (INH)
Genes : inhA. Encoding protein for fatty acid
biosynthesis.
inhA has correlation with resistance to INH and ETH
Polymorphisms were found in the upstream of orfI
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Ethambutol (EMB)
Action and target: Not clearly known
Candidate;
Inhibition of RNA metabolism
Inhibition of phospholipid synthesis
Inhibition of transfer of mycolic acid
Inhibition of spermidine synthesis
Inhibition of first step of glucose conversion.
Genes : No genes were identified.
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Pyrazinamide (PZA)
Action and target: Not clearly known
Candidate; Pyrazinamidase convert PZA to pyarzinoic
acid. PZA-resistance MTB lack of the pyrazinamidase
activity.
Genes : No gene were identified
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Avian influenza
Timeline of Emergence of
Influenza A Viruses in Humans
Avian
Influenza
Russian
Influenza
H9
H5
H7
H5
H1
H3
H2
H1
1918
Spanish
Influenza
H1N1
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1997 2003
1998/9
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Antigenic Drift
Antigenic drift is the natural mutation
over time of known strains of influenza
to evade the immune system.
Antigenic drift occurs in all types of
influenza including influenza A, B and
C.
The same subtype of viruses
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Mutation
In general mutations are changes to the DNA or RNA
(genetic materials) of viruses.
Mutations can be caused by :
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Source: WHO/WPRO
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Hemagglutinin
RNA
M2 protein
(only on type A)
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Antigenic Drift
RNA
Hemagglutinin
Neuraminidase
Antibodies
Sialic
acid
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Antigenic Shift:
Antigenic shift is the process by which two different
strains of influenza combine to form a new subtype
having a mixture of the surface antigens of the two
original strains.
The term antigenic shift is specific to the influenza
literature; in other viral systems, the same process
is called reassortment or viral shift.
Antigenic shift occurs only in influenza A because it
infects more than just humans.
Affected species include other mammals and birds,
giving influenza A the opportunity for a major
reorganization of surface antigens.
New subtype of virus developed
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Reassortment
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Source: WHO/WPRO
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Domestic bird
Source: WHO/WPRO
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Domestic birds
Hong Kong,
SAR China 1997,
H5N1
Hong Kong,
SAR China 1999,
H9N2
The
Netherlands
2003, H7N7
Hong Kong,
SAR China 2003,
H5N1
Source: WHO/WPRO
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Antigenic Shift
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