Electromagnetic Fields

Four vector quantities

E

electric field strength

[Volt/meter] = [kg-m/sec 3]

electric flux density

[Coul/meter 2] = [Amp-sec/m2]

magnetic field strength [Amp/meter] = [Amp/m]

magnetic flux density

[Weber/meter 2] or [Tesla] = [kg/Amp-sec2]

each are functions of space and time

e.g. E(x,y,z,t)

electric current density

v electric charge density

[Amp/meter2]
[Coul/meter3] = [Amp-sec/m3]

Sources generating
electromagnetic fields

MKS units
length meter [m]
mass kilogram [kg]
time second [sec]

Some common prefixes and the power of ten each represent are listed below
femto - f - 10-15

centi - c - 10-2

mega - M - 106

pico

- p - 10-12

deci

- d - 10-1

giga

- G - 109

nano

- n - 10-9

deka - da - 101

tera

- T - 1012

micro

- - 10-6

hecto - h - 102

peta - P - 1015

milli

- m - 10-3

kilo

- k - 103

Maxwells Equations
(time-varying, differential form)

B
E
t
D
H J
t
B 0
D

Maxwells Equations
James Clerk Maxwell (18311879)
James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish mathematician and
theoretical physicist. His most significant achievement was the
development of the classical electromagnetic theory,
synthesizing all previous unrelated observations, experiments
and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a
consistent theory. His set of equationsMaxwell's equations
demonstrated that electricity, magnetism and even light are all
manifestations of the same phenomenon: the electromagnetic
field. From that moment on, all other classical laws or equations
of these disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell's
equations. Maxwell's work in electromagnetism has been called
the "second great unification in physics", after the first one
carried out by Isaac Newton.
Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel
through space in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of
light. Finally, in 1864 Maxwell wrote A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field where he first proposed that light was in
fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric
and magnetic phenomena. His work in producing a unified model
of electromagnetism is considered to be one of the greatest
advances in physics.

(Wikipedia)

The Four Laws of Electromagnetism

4 Laws of EM (incomplete)
Law

Gauss for
E
Gauss for
B
Faraday

Ampere
(Steady I
only)

Mathematical
Statement

E gdA

q
0

How q produces E;
E lines begin & end on qs.

B gdA 0

E gdr

No magnetic monopole;
B lines form loops.

d B
dt

B gdr

Physical
Meaning

Changing B gives emf.

Moving charges give B.

Note E-B asymmetry between the Faraday & Ampere

laws.

29.3. Maxwells Equations

Law

Gauss for
E
Gauss for
B
Faraday

AmpereMaxwell

Mathematical
Statement

E gdA

Physical
Meaning

q
0

How q produces E;
E lines begin & end on qs.
No magnetic monopole;
B lines form loops.

B gdA 0

E gdr

d B
dt

B gdr 0 I 0 0

Changing B gives emf.

d E
dt

Maxwells Eqs (1864).

Classical
electromagnetism.

Moving charges &

changing E give
B.

Maxwells Equations
q
S E dA o

B dA

Gauss's law electric

0 Gauss's law in magnetism

d B
E ds dt

Faraday's law

B ds

dE
o
dt

oI

Ampere-Maxwell law

The two Gausss laws are symmetrical, apart from the absence of
the term for magnetic monopoles in Gausss law for magnetism
Faradays law and the Ampere-Maxwell law are symmetrical in
that the line integrals of E and B around a closed path are related
to the rate of change of the respective fluxes

Electromagnetic Fields
Oersted and Ampere showed how an electric
current could create a magnetic field, causing
action at a distance.
Faraday showed how a magnetic field could
create a current, but only if it was varying in
time.
Maxwell generalised Faradays and Amperes
Laws, combined them, and discovered an
equation for travelling electromagnetic waves.

Maxwells Equations

div D
div B 0

B
curl E
t
D
curl H
J
t

Maxwells Equations (cont.)

(Time-varying, differential form)

B
Faradays law
E
t
D
Amperes law
H J
t
Magnetic Gauss law
B 0
D v Electric Gauss law

Electromagnetic Waves

Faradays law:

changing B gives E.

Ampere-Maxwells law:

changing E gives B.

Electromagnetic (EM) waves

First law
Gausss law (electrical):
The total electric flux through any closed
surface equals the net charge inside that
surface divided by o
This relates an electric field to the charge
distribution that creates it

Second law
Gausss law (magnetism):
The total magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero
This says the number of field lines that
enter a closed volume must equal the
number that leave that volume
This implies the magnetic field lines
cannot begin or end at any point
Isolated magnetic monopoles have not
been observed in nature

THIRD LAW
Faradays law of Induction:
This describes the creation of an electric
field by a changing magnetic flux
The law states that the emf, which is the line
integral of the electric field around any
closed path, equals the rate of change of
the magnetic flux through any surface
bounded by that path
One consequence is the current induced in
a conducting loop placed in a time-varying B

FOURTH LAW
The Ampere-Maxwell law is a
generalization of Amperes law

It describes the creation of a magnetic

field by an electric field and electric
currents
The line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed path is the given sum

Law of Conservation of Electric

Charge (Continuity Equation)
H J

D
t

D
H J
t

0 J D
t
Flow of electric
current out of volume
(per unit volume)

v
J
t

[2.20]

Rate of decrease of electric

charge (per unit volume)

Continuity Equation (cont.)

v
J
t
Integrate both sides over an arbitrary volume V:

v
V J dV V t dV
Apply the divergence theorem:

J n dS

v

dV
t
V

S
V

Continuity Equation (cont.)

J n dS

Physical interpretation:

v
dV
t
S

n
iout

dV
v dV

t
t V
V
iout

Qencl

or

(This assumes that the

surface is stationary.)

Qencl
iin
t

Maxwells Equations

Time - Dependent
B
E
t

D
H J
t

B 0

D v

H J

B 0

Time -Independent (Statics)

E 0
Decouples E and H

D v

E is a function of v and H is a function of J

Maxwells Equations
Time-harmonic (phasor) domain

E j B
H J j D
B 0
D v

j
t

Constitutive Relations
Characteristics of media relate D to E and H to B
Free Space

D 0 E ( 0 = permittivity )
B 0 H (0 = permeability)

0 B 8.8541878 10-12 [F/m]

[2.24]
[2.25]

[p. 35]

0 = 4 10-7 [H/m] (exact )

c

1
0 0

c = 2.99792458 108 [m/s]

(exact value that is defined)

Constitutive Relations (cont.)

Free space, in the phasor domain:

D = 0 E ( 0 = permittivity )
B = 0 H (0 = permeability)

This follows from the fact that

aV t aV
(where a is a real number)

Constitutive Relations (cont.)

In a material medium:

D = E ( = permittivity )
B = H ( = permeability)

= 0 r

r = relative permittivity

0 r

r = relative permittivity

Terminology
or
Dependent on

Independent of

space

homogenous

inhomogeneous

frequency

non-dispersive

dispersive

time

stationary

non-stationary

field strength

linear

non-linear

direction of
E or H

isotropic

anisotropic