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MEASUREMENTS
Briefing
Module Description
Module Objectives
Contribute to the achievement of the Learning Outcomes specified
for the students award at Level 1
Enable students to develop their knowledge and skills in relation to
Instrumentation and Measurement
Develop the ability of students to apply the knowledge they gain in
relation to the study of Instrumentation and Measurement
Introduce students to the knowledge, skills and techniques relevant
to the study of Instrumentation and measurement
Enable students to develop their ability to:
Critically Analyse
Solve complex problems
Innovate
Use ICT relevant to given situations
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Module Description
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this module, you should be able
to:
Appraise various types of instruments for engineering
measurements and applications PO1, PO3
Describe measurement processes for accurate and precise
measurement. - PO2
Describe the characteristics, operation and limitations of
various measurement sensors/transducers - PO2
Construct suitable signal conditioning circuits for appropriate
measurement performance. - PO1, PO2, PO3, PO5, PO10
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Module Description
Programme Outcomes
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Module Description
Duration
16 weeks
Lectures (2.5 hours)
Tutorials/Labs (1 hour)
Assessment
Class test+ Lab report(20% + 20%)
Mode
Assignment: Written individual assessment
Lab : Group work with individual report
Evidence - Report
Exam (60%)
Problem solving
Discussion & Analysis
EE009-3-1-INM Instrumentation & Measurements
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Essential Reading
1. A.S. Morris (2001) Measurement and Instrumentation
Principles, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann ISBN
0750650818
2. Barney, G.C., Intelligent Instrumentation: Microprocessor Applications in Measurement and Control,
Prentice Hall, 2nd Ed.
3. Bentley, J.P., Principles of Measurement Systems,
Longman Scientific and Technical, third edition, 1995.
4. Doebelin, E.O., Measurement Systems: Application
and Design, McGraw-Hill, fourth edition,
1992.Sheingold,
5. D.H. (editor), Analog-Digital Conversion Handbook,
Prentice-Hall, third edition, 1986. 2nd edition
1988.
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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
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CHAPTER 1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
determine and explain units and quantities common
in engineering measurement
discuss measurement processes and practices
Identify and calculate various types of error in
measurement
explain the meaning of some terms in used in the
instrumentation
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CHAPTER 1 OUTLINE
1.1 Principles of instrumentation and measurements
Statistical analysis
1.3 Measurement standard
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MEASUREMENT
To monitor processes and operations
To control processes and operations
To analyze processes and operations
Input
Variable being
measured
Output
Measurement
Instrument
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Measured value
of variable
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Monitoring
Measure and indicate
Thermometer, speedometer, voltmeter,
bellows
Controlling
Bimetal thermostat in an A/C unit
Analysis
Testing for validity
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INSTRUMENTS
A transducer
A signal conditioning circuit
A device to display/record
Display/recording
unit
Measured
physical
variable
Transducer
Analog
signal
processing
Analog to
digital
converter
Digital
signal
processing
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- to record a measurement
the measured quantity is recorded for
various purposes
Instrument selection
Before any attempt for measurement is to be made,
please make sure that you have sound knowledge on
the:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
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Symbol
Unit
Unit Abbreviation
Time
Second
Mass
kilogram
kg
Electric Current
Ampere
Amp
Temperature
Kelvin
Length
meter
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Accuracy
Sensitivity
Precision
Resolution
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Undesirable
Drift
Static Error
Dead Zone
Threshold
Hysteresis
Creep
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Accuracy
Accuracy is the correctness of a single measurement. It is the closeness
of the measured value to the true value. The closeness of an average to
a true value is referred to as "trueness".
Example 1:
Suppose a known voltage of 200 V is being measure by voltmeter and the
successive readings are 204, 205, 203, 203, 205. Find the accuracy of
each reading.
Accuracy
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Precision
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Accuracy vs Precision
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xmin
x 100
Measured range
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Example 2
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or in normalized form,
Sn = y / x
y/x
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Repeatability
The closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use, maintained throughout
The degree of repeatability is an alternate way of
expressing precision
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Reproducibility
Consistent measurement output from the same
physical quantity when the measurement
condition is changed. Example, dismantled and reassembled instruments or measurements taken with
long periods of rest in between.
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Zero Drift
Defined as the drift from the null reading of the
instrument when the measurand is maintained at
steady for a long period of time.
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Dynamic characteristics
First order system
Second order system
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Rise time, Tr
time taken for response to go from 10% to 90% of
its final value
Settling time, Ts
time for response to reach and stay within 5% of
final value
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% Overshoot = cmax
2 ln 2 %OS / 100
cfinal x 100
cfinal
ln %OS / 100
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
In percentage:
% error = (100)
Relative accuracy A:
Yn X n
A 1
Yna:
Percentage accuracy
a = A*100
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Observational Error
Errors that introduced by the
observer. The two most common
observational errors are probably
the parallax error introduced in
reading a meter scale and the
error of estimation when obtaining
a reading from a meter scale
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Instrumental Error
Error due to friction in the bearings
of the meter movement, incorrect
spring
tension,
improper
calibration, or faulty instruments.
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
Environmental Error
Due to external condition of the
measurement. Examples, effects
of
change
in
temperature,
humidity, barometric pressure,
electrostatic fields etc.
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Static Errors
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Static Errors
Types of Static Errors
i) Absolute error
ii) Gross error
iii) Systematic error
iv) Random error
v) Limiting error
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Importance:
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STATISTICS
Collection of methods for planning
experiments, obtaining data,
organizing, summarizing, presenting,
analysis, interpreting and drawing
conclusion.
Statistical steps:
Gather data
Organize data
Analyze data
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population
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sample
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NUMERICAL MEASURES
Measurement of central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Measurement of variations
Range
Variance
Standard deviation
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The Mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide
this total by the number of values in the data.
The Median
To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find the
middle value. If there are two values in the middle then you find the mean of
these two values.
The Mode
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It is
possible to have more than one mode if there is more than one value
which appears the most.
The Range
To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest values
in the data. The range is found by subtracting the lowest value from the highest
value.
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MEAN
Sample mean
Population mean
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MEDIAN
The middle value when the numbers are arranged in
ascending or descending order
1
2
Ex:
median
4
5
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MODE
The data value that occurs with greatest
frequency
Ex:
1
1
1
3
5
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mode
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Median
86 83 98 96 88 72 64 86 83 83 80 94 93 75 44
82
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98,96, 94,93,88,87,86,86,83,83,83,80,75,72,64,44
86 83 84.5
2
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Exercise
Find the mode, median and mean for
2, 3, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 3, 2, 3.
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MEASUREMENT OF VARIATIONS
RANGE
Difference between the largest and smallest
value in the dataset
1
2
Ex:
Range = 5 1= 4
4
5
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68/20 = ?
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1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6
(3 + 4) / 2 = ?
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Mode
In this case we can see that the value with the highest
frequency is "2".
The mode of this set of data is therefore 2
Range
Look for the highest and lowest values in the values
column.
In this case the lowest value is "1" and the highest
value is "6", and 6 - 1 = 5.
The range of this set of data is therefore 5
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Exercise
Value
Frequency
10
Value
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VARIANCE
Measurement of the dispersion of values from the
mean.
2
xi x
2
s
Sample variance
n 1
Population variance
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STANDARD DEVIATION
The positive square root of the variance
Sample standard deviation
s s
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variance
variance is basically a measure of the
general dispersion of data in a sample, it
gives you a sense of how far away data
points are from one another.
the larger the variance, the more variability
you have in your sample.
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Standard deviation
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out
numbers are.
Its symbol is (the greek letter sigma)
Standard Deviation is the average distance of each point in the
sample from the sample mean in terms of the original units of
measurement.
for instance, say you want to estimate the average height of a
high school male basketball player. you take a sample of 10
varsity basketball players from your school and calculate their
height and standard deviation. say you find that the mean of the
sample is 70 in with a standard deviation of 2, you can say that
the average difference between any given high school varsity
basketball player is 2 inches from the mean of 70
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