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 1.1

: Milestones in genetics:
Mendel, Watson and
Crick,
Human Genome Project
1.2 Structures of DNA and RNA
1.3 Gene organization and gene
expression
1.4 Basic features of genetic
engineering

n
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1.1 Three Great Milestones

in Genetics

1.1 The First Great Milestone

in Genetics
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Genes
hereditary
factors
responsible for
traits

Alleles
different
forms of
genes

Rules of
Inheritance
Alleles of the
same gene
separate
during
gamete
formation
Alleles of

1.1 The Second Great

Milestone in Genetics

Genes are made of nucleic

acids
Nucleic acids are made of
building blocks called
nucleotides
Nucleotides have three
components
Sugar molecule (ribose or
deoxyribose)
Phosphate molecule
Nitrogen-containing
molecule (adenine,
guanine, cytosine,
thymine, uracil)
RNA is ribonucleic acid
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid

1.1 The Second Great

Milestone in Genetics

Nucleoti
linked indes are
through a chain
phospha sugarinteracti te
ons
DN A m o
made of lecules are
of nucle two chains
wound aotides
other in round each
a helix
Base pai
chains tors hold the
gether

A pairs w
ith T
G pairs w
ith C

the entirety of an organism's hereditary

information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for
many types of viruses, in RNA.
The genome includes both the genes
and the non-coding sequences of the
DNA/RNA
Non coding DNA/RNA? -- Some noncoding
DNA
is
transcribed
into
functional
non-coding RNA molecules (e.g. transfer RNA,
ribosomal RNA, and regulatory RNAs. The
amount of noncoding DNA varies greatly
among species. For example, over 98% of the
human genome is noncoding DNA, while only
about 2% of a typical bacterial genome is
noncoding DNA.

genetics can be studied at the level of an

entire population of organisms.
individuals within a population may carry
different alleles of a gene.
perhaps they carry different alleles of
many genes.
the member of a population vary in their
genetic makeup.

1.1 The Third Great

Milestone in Genetics

Genomethe colle
ct
DNA molecules tha ion of
t is
characteristic of an
organism
Genomics is the a
nal
DNA sequences that ysis of
make
up a genome
Genomics involves
DNA
sequencing technol
ogy,
robotics, and comp
uter
science
The Human Geno
The
me
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Characteristics
rmined the
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T h e ph i X 1
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X 17 4 i s a v
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1.2
Structures
of DNA
and RNA

A
N
D
2
1.

Small segmen
ts of DNA ar
e
called genes
. Each ge
ne
holds the inst
ructions for ho
w
to produce a
single protein
.
This can be
compared to
a
recipe for mak
ing a food dis
h.
A recipe is
a set of
instructions
for making
a
single dish.

An organism may have thousands of

genes. The set of all genes in an
organism is called a genome. A genome
can be compared to a cookbook of
recipes that makes that organism what it
is. Every cell of every living organism has
a cookbook.

to
A
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c
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e
l
ab
Must be

Genetics
is
the
process
of
trait
inheritance from parents to offspring,
including the molecular structure and
function of genes, gene behavior in the
context of a cell or organism, gene
distribution, and variation and change in
populations.
Given that genes are universal to living
organisms, genetics can be applied to the
study of all living systems, including
bacteria, plants, animals, and humans.
The observation that living things inherit
traits from their parents has been used
since prehistoric times to improve crop
plants and animals through selective
breeding.
The
modern
science
of
genetics, seeking to understand this
process, began with the work of Gregor
Mendel in the mid-19th century.

e
n
e
G
3
.
1
n
o
i
t
a
z
i
n
a
Org
e
n
e
G
d
n
a
n
o
i
s
s
e
r
Exp

Based on th
e compleme
ntary nature
two strands
o f th e
o f d u p le x D N
A molecules.
W he n
the
two
parental
s e p a r a te d , t
s tr a nd s
he separate
a re
d
s
t
as template
rands can se
fo r t h e s y n t h
rve
e
s
i
s
of new stran
New strands
ds.
are assembl
ed by incorp
nucleotides a
orating
ccording to b
ase-pairing r
A t t h e en d
ules.
of replicatio
n, each tem
strand is pa
plate
ired with a
n
e wl y s y n t h e
partner stran
sized
d.
DNA replicat
ion is catalyz
e d b y e nz y m
es .

During transcription, an RNA molecule

is synthesized from a DNA template.
This messenger RNA (mRNA)
molecules contains the information
needed to synthesize a polypeptide.
During translation, the triplet codons
in the RNA specify the incorporation of
particular amino acids into a polypeptide
chain.

The fow of information is DNA RNA protein.

Some viruses can use RNA as a template for the

synthesis of DNA in reverse transcription.
Many genes do not encode polypeptides; their
end-products are RNA molecules.

c
i
s
a
B
1. 4
f
o
s
e
r
F eat u
c
i
t
e
n
e
G
g
n
i
r
e
e
Engin

What is genetic engineering?

Genetic engineering is the process of
manually adding new DNA to an
organism. The goal is to add one or more
new traits that are not already found in
that organism. Examples of genetically
engineered (transgenic) organisms
currently on the market include plants
with resistance to some insects, plants
that can tolerate herbicides, and crops
with modified oil content.

CONCEPT #1: What is DNA?

DNA is the recipe for life. DNA is a molecule
found in the nucleus of every cell and is
made up of 4 subunits represented by the
letters A, T, G, and C. The order of these
subunits in the DNA strand holds a code of
information for the cell. Just like the English
alphabet makes up words using 26 letters,
the genetic language uses 4 letters to spell
out the instructions for how to make the
proteins an organism will need to grow and
live.

CONCEPT #2: Why are proteins

important?
Proteins do the work in cells. They can be
part of structures (such as cell walls,
organelles, etc). They can regulate
reactions that take place in the cell. Or
they can serve as enzymes, which speedup reactions. Everything you see in an
organism is either made of proteins or
the result of a protein action.

CONCEPT #3: How is DNA important in

genetic engineering?
DNA is a universal language, meaning the
genetic code means the same thing in all
organisms. It would be like if all cookbooks
around the world were written in a single
language that everyone knew. This
characteristic is critical to the success of genetic
engineering. When a gene for a desirable trait is
taken from one organism and inserted into
another, it gives the recipient organism the
ability to express that same trait.

How is genetic engineering done?

Genetic engineering, also called
transformation, works by physically
removing a gene from one organism and
inserting it into another, giving it the
ability to express the trait encoded by
that gene. It is like taking a single recipe
out of a cookbook and placing it into
another cookbook.