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Definition
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Unit-1
Ecosystems
Ecology
Concept of Ecosystem
Contd.
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An ecosystem :
1.is an integrated unit consisting of interacting plants, animals and
microorganisms whose survival depends upon the maintenance and
regulation of their biotic and abiotic structures and functions.
Ecosystem Characteristics :
Contd.
1.a.) Producers : Mainly green plants which can synthesize their food
themselves by making use of carbondioxide present in the air and
water in the presence of sunlight by involving chlorophylll , the green
pigment present in the leaves, through the process of photosynthesis.
They are also as photo autotrophs .
b.) There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic
matter to some extent through oxidation of certain chemicals in the
absence of sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms
or chemo-autotrophs. For instance in the ocean depths , where there
is no sunlight ,chemoautotrophs sulphur bacteria make use of the
heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in the
earths core and released in the ocean depths. They use this heat to
convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide into organic
compounds.
Contd.
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Trophic structure
Food chains
Contd.
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1. Here , a large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into
the water.
Contd.
3.These fallen leaves are colonized by small algae , which are also
consumed by the saprotrophs of detritivores consisting of crabs ,
mollusks , shrimps , insect larvae , nematodes and fishes. The
detritivores are eaten by small carnivorous fishes , which in turn are
eaten by large carnivorous fishes.
CONTD.
Thus the grazing food chain derives it senergy basically from plant
energy while in the detritus food chain it is obtained primarily from
palnt biomass , secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiarily
from carnivores .Both the food chains occur together in natural
ecosystems , but grazing food chain usually predominates.
Food web
Contd.
If due to some stress, the population of reindeer or
caribou falls, it will leave little option for man or wolf to
eatr from the ecosystem . Had there been more
biodiversity ,it would have led to complex food giving the
ecosystem more stability.
Case study
Contd.
It becomes very clear from the above instance that the animals
occupying the higher trophic levels are at a greater risk of
Biomagnification of toxic chemicals .Human beings consuming milk,
eggs, and meat are at a higher trophic level. So, we have to stop
indiscriminate use of pestcides and heavy metals if we wish to save
ourselves form their biologically magnified levels.
The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near
the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.The names
of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho),
air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This
crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire
surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of
the Mariana Trench.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or
near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes,
and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven percent of
the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three
percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water
is solid and exists in ice sheets
Biosphere
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms.
Plants, animals, and one-celled organisms are all
part of the biosphere. Most of the planet's life is
found from three meters below the ground to thirty
meters above it and in the top 200 meters of the
oceans and seas.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most
of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is
most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under
21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon
dioxide and other gasses.
Contd.
All four spheres can be and often are present
in a single location. For example, a piece of
soil will of course have mineral material from
the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be
elements of the hydrosphere present as
moisture within the soil, the biosphere as
insects and plants, and even the atmosphere
as pockets of air between soil pieces.
Biosphere
The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard
Suess in 1875, which he defined as:
"The place on Earth's surface where life dwells."
Contd.
The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It
can also be called the zone of life on Earth, a closed
(apart from solar and cosmic radiation), and selfregulating system. From the broadest biophysiological
point of view, the biosphere is the global
ecologicalsystem integrating all living beings and their
relationships, including their interaction with the
elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere.
Contd.
The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning
through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least
some 3.5 billion years ago.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the
Earth. It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers
and streams. The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the
surface of the Earth and is the home for many plants and
animals.
Contd.
1.The hydrosphere, like the atmosphere, is always in
motion.
2.The motion of rivers and streams can be easily seen,
while the motion of the water within lakes and ponds is
less obvious.
3.Some of the motion of the oceans and seas can be
easily seen while the large scale motions that move
water great distances such as between the tropics and
poles or between continents are more difficult to see.
Contd.
4.These types of motions are in the form of currents that
move the warm waters in the tropics toward the poles,
and colder water from the polar regions toward the
tropics. These currents exist on the surface of the ocean
and at great depths in the ocean (up to about 4km).
Contd.
1.Warm water which is less dense or lighter tends to
move up toward the surface ,while colder water is more
dense or heavier and therefore tends to sink to the
bottom.
2. Salty water is also more dense or heavier and thus
tends to sink ,while fresh or less salty water is less or
lighter and thus tends to rise to the surface.
Contd.
3.The oceans currents are also affected by the motion of
the atmosphere, or winds, above it. The energy in the
wind gets transferred to the ocean at the ocean surface
affecting the motion of the water there. The effect of wind
is largest at the ocean surface.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all
groups of living organisms and the ecosystem
complexes in which they occur.
A marvelous spectrum of life occurs in all forms, sizes
,colors and shapes in all types of ecosystems ranging
from the dreist deserts to the dense tropical rainforests
and from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the
deepest of the ocean trenches .
Each form of life has its own unique ecological
relationship with its surroundings.
Contd.
Levels of Biodiversity
Units of Biodiversity may range from the genetic level
within a species to the biota ( combined flora and fauna
of a region) in a specific region and may extend up to a
great diversity found in different biomes( a major regional
or global community such as grasslands or deserts)
Genetic Diversity
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information
transmitted from one generation to other. When genes
within the same species show different versions due to
new combinations ,it is called genetic variability . For
example , all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza
Sativa , but there are thousands of wild and cultivated
varieties which show variations at the genertic level and
differ in their colour ,size , shape , aroma, and nutrient
content of the grain. This is called the genetic diversity of
rice.
Species diversity
This is the variability found within the population of a
species or between different species of a community .It
represents broadly the species richness and their
abundance in a community .
Ecosystem Diversity
1.is the ecological complexity showing variations in
ecological niches , trophic structure , food-webs , nutrient
cycling etc.
2. The ecosystems also show varaitions with respect to
physical parameters like moisture , temperature ,altitude
, precipitation etc.
Thus , there occurs tremendous diversity within the
ecosystem along these gradients
Contd.
Example : Forest Ecosystem :
It mainly has the dominance of trees.
But if one were to study tropical rainforest , a tropical
deciduous forest , a temperate deciduous forest and a
boreal forest , one would find a huge variation because
of the physical factors involved.
Importance of Diversity
1.Developed over millions of years of evolution.
2. Destruction of this diversity would lead to disruption in
the ecological balance.
3. One kind of diversity cannot be replaced with
another .Example : Coniferous trees of the boreal forests
cannot take up the function of the trees of tropical
deciduous forests and vice versa because the
ecosystem diversity has evolved with respect to the
prevailing environmental conditions with well regulated
ecological balance.
Biogeographically classification of
India
1.India has different types of climate and topography in
different parts of the country and these variations have
induced enormous variability in flora and fauna.
2. India has a rich heritage of biological diversity and
occupies the tenth position among the plant rich nations
of the world.
Contd.
3. Semi arid zone of Central India Gujarat Rajwara :
Flora and Fauna found :Acacia ,Date ,Palm ,Peepal
Gir Lion, Tiger and Sariska and Ranthambhore (Tiger
reserves)
4. Western Ghat Zone of Malabar coast ;western ghat
;Mountain region: Sheesham ;Peepal, Tuna; Bahera;
Tortoise ,Frog; Lizards ,Snakes
5. Desert Zone of Hutch ,Thar,Ladakh
Flora and Fauna found : Acacia ,Zizphus,Khejri ,Date
palm ,Bastard ,Wild ass,Desert ,Cat,Fox ,RAT
Contd.
6. Deccan Peninsula : Deccan plateau South-Central
plateau , Eastern plateau ,Chhota Nagpur ,centarl
Highlands
Flora and Fauna found: Acacia ,Palaash, ,Tuan, Pine ,
Castor ,
Sambar, Sloth bear ,Tiger ,Chhetal ,Four horned stag ,
Wild elephant ,wild buffalo
7. Gangetic plain: upper gangetic plain;Lower ganegtic
plain:
Flora and Fauna found: Sal,Acacia , Jamun, Mango ,
Bael
Contd.
Black chinkara ,Stag, Rhinoceros, Gazzel ,Alligator,
Turtle
8. North East India Zone of Bramaputra VALLEY ;North
Eastern Hills : Bamboo ,Sal, Jack fruit, Tuna,
Chestnut ,Castor,
Elephant ,Rhinoceros ,Yak ,Deer ,Porcupine
9. Islands :Andaman Islands ;Niocorbar Islands
;Lakshadweep Islands
Contd.
Flora and Fauna found : Bahera,Harar ,Jack fruit,
Cardamom, Coconut, Cloves , Dolphin, Alligator
,Molluscs
10. Coasts : West coast and East coast : Cocunut
,Banana ,Cashew nut
Dugong,Dolphin ,Turtle ,Alligator,Molluscs.
Value of Biodiversity
Value of Biodiversity
The value of Biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility , ecological services ,social and aesthetic value in enormous.
The multiple uses of Biodiversity :
(1.) Consumptive use or value: These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food ,drugs, fibre etc.
b.) Food : A large number of wildplants are consumed by human beings .
Edible plant species reported from the wild : 80,000.
90% of the present day food crops have been domesticted from wild tropical plants.
Contd.
Contd.
A large number of marine animals are supposed to possess anticancer properties which are supposed to be explored systematically.
Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The
fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of
fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals are not
normally marketed , but are directly consumed by tribals and local
vilagers , hence falls under consumptive value.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
(3.) Social value : These are the values associated with the social
life , customs , religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people
.Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country.
Plants considered sacred: Tulsi(holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus,
Bael etc.
The tribal people are very closely linked with the wildlife in the forests.
Their social life , songs, dances and customs are closely linked
woven around the wildlife.
Many animals like cow, snake, bull , peacock, owl etc. also have a
significant place in our psycho spiritual arena and thus hold special
social importance .
Ethical value
Aesthetic value
Option Values
Contd.
All the categories of Biodiversity value
clearly indicate that ecosystem , species
and genetic diversity have enormous
potential value and a decline in
biodiversity will lead to huge economic ,
ecological and socio-cultural losses.
Global Biodiversity
2. Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which is perhaps
15% or may be just 2% of the actual number.
Terrestrial Biodiversity
Terrestrial Biodiversity of the earth is best described as
biomes, which are the largest ecological units present in
different geographic areas and are named after the
dominant vegetation e.g. the tropical rainforests , tall
grass prairies ,savannas , tundra etc.
Contd.
Contd.
Protecting Biodiversity
The silent valley in Kerela is the only place in India where tropical
rain forests occur. There was abandoned mainly because it had put
to risk our only tropical rain forest biodiversity .
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Hotspots of Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
1. Extinction
2.Loss of habitat
3.Poaching
4. Man-Wildlife conflicts
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
1. The trading of such wildlife products is highly profit making for the
poachers who just hunt these prohibited wildlife and smuggle it to
other countries mediated through a mafia.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
The park renowned for its wildlife conservation effort has become a
zone of terror for the locals.
Contd.
4.Very often the villagers put electric wiring around the their ripe
crop fields.The elephants get injured and turn violent .
Contd.
Conservation of Biodiversity
Contd.
In situ conservation
Contd.
Contd.
Wildlife sanctuaries
Contd.
Contd.
Plant Sanctuary
For plants there is one gene sanctuary for citrus (Lemon family)
And one for pitcher plant (an insect eating plant) in Northeast Indai.
Conservation contd.
Ex situ conservation
Sustainable development
Contd.
1. Development has just been human oriented , that too for a few
rich nations.
2. Developments in the field of science and technology have
enhanced the levels of pollution to an unprecedented degree
Eg. Contaminated water
Polluted air
Adulterated food
This is an example of unsustainable development which will lead to
a total collapse of the interrelated systems of this earth.
Contd.
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Contd.
Intra-generational equity
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Principles
Contd.
2. The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land,
flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural
ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and
future generations through careful planning or management, as
appropriate.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
7. States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas
by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to
harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to
interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea.
Contd.
Contd.
9. Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of underdevelopment and natural disasters pose grave problems and can
best be remedied by accelerated development through the transfer
of substantial quantities of financial and technological assistance as
a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and
such timely assistance as may be required.
Contd.
Contd.
environmental policies of all States should
enhance and not adversely affect the present or future
development potential of developing countries, nor
should they hamper the attainment
of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps
should be taken by States and international
organizations with a view to reaching agreement on
meeting the possible national and international economic
consequences resulting from the application of
environmental measures.
11. The
Contd.
12. Resources
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
21. States
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
26. Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear
weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must
strive to reach prompt agreement, in the relevant international
organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such
weapons.
2. Conservation
Contd.
3. Energy
Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficient
energy use Renewable energy commercialization Environmental
impact of the coal industry Environmental impact of hydrauli
fracturing
Contd.
6.Genetic engineering Genetic pollution Genetically modified
food controversies
7. Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture
Environmental effects of meat production Slash and burn
Pesticide drift Plasticulture
8. Land degradation Land pollution Desertification
9. Soil
Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination Soil
salination
10. Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitat
destruction
11. Nanotechnology Nanotoxicology Nanopollution
Contd.
13. Overpopulation
Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in
companion animals Tragedy of the commons Gender Imbalance
in Developing Countries Sub-replacement fertility levels in
developed countries
14. Ozone depletion CFC Biological effects of UV exposure
15. Pollution Environmental impact of the coal industry Nonpoint
source pollution Point source pollution Light pollution Noise
pollution Visual pollution
Contd.
Contd.
Environmental impacts of reservoirs
19. Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources
18. Reservoirs
Overdrafting
20. Consumerism
Consumer capitalism Planned
obsolescence Over-consumption
21. Fishing Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing
Ghost nets Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
Overfishing Shark finning Whaling
22. Logging Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging
Contd.
International Protocols
Contd.
5.World commission on
Environment and Development
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Rio-Declaration: 3rd to 14th June 1992
Principles :
Contd.
5. All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of
eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development , in order to decrease the disparities in standards of
living and better meet the needs of the majority of the peole of the
world.
Contd.
Contd.
contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
19. States shall provide prior and timely notification and relavant
information to potentially affected Staes on activities that may have
a siginificant adverse transboundary environmental effect and
shallconsult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.
21. The creativity , ideals and courage of the youth of the world
should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve
sustainable development .
Contd.
Contd.
27. States and the people shall cooperate in good faith and in a
spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in
this Declaration and in the further development of international law
in the field of sustainable development.
Earth Summit +5
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
WTO
Kyoto Protocol
Unit-2
Pollution and Public Policy
Water Pollution
Water pollution
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
5. Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during and shipment polluet it.
Contd.
Contd.
4.Toxic compounds : Pollutants such as heavy metals , pesticides
,cyanides and many other organic and inorganic componds are
harmful to aquatic organisms.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Treatment of water aims at :
1.reduction of BOD,COD,eutrophication of receiving
bodies
2. prevention of bio-magnification of toxic substances in
food chains and prevention of disease due to pathogenic
organisms present in water.
1.Primary treatment
2.Secondary treatment
2(a.). Trickling filters
(b.).Activated sludge process
(c.).Rotating Biological Contractor
(d.).Advanced sewage treatment
(e.).Upflow anaerobic sludge reactor(USAB)
1.Primary treatment
2. Secondary treatment
It is a bological process which involves
microorganisms ,It removes upto 90% of the BOD and
90% of suspended solids .Biodegradable oxygen
demanding wastes are stabilized .Following are the
various approaches adopted in secondary treatment :
Contd.
A.)Trickling filters : These consist of a bed of crushed
stones /pebbles covered with slime which consists
mainly of aerobic bacteria , algae , fungi , protozoa ,
worms, and insect larvae. Sewage is degraded by the
aerobic bacteria when it passes through the bed and is
collected at the bottom of the filter. Some of the treated
sewage may be recirculated along the influent. It helps
in better removal of organic matter and also keeps the
filter moist when the flow rate over the filter is slow.
Contd.
Contd.
A dense blanket of granular anaerobic biomass is used
to conver organic compounds that are passed through
the sludge blanket continuously. Biogas produced is
collected at the top of the reactor. The wastewater to be
treated is fed into the reactor at the bottom.As the
influent flows through the loops And enters the reactor
chamber , hydrolisis occurs .This process converts the
influent into H2 ,co2, ch4,acetate , new cell-matter etc.
COD removal of up to 80% is achieved .Methane and
co2 are separated from the reactor.
Hydrological cycle
This cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earthatmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the
hydrologic cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of
water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution
among the various processes is continually changing.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Contd.
Ice also plays a role in the hydrologic cycle. Ice and snow on the
Earths surface occur in various forms such as frost, sea ice, and
glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice also occurs beneath the
Earths surface, forming permafrost in tundra climates. About 18,000
years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-third of
the Earths land surface. Today about 12 percent of the land surface
remains covered by ice masses.