Utilization of Electrical Energy

by

Dr. K V S R Murthy,
Professor,
Department of E. E. E.
Aditya Engineering Collge,
Surampalem.

Electrical Drive
The combination of a prime-mover , speed
control device, transmission equipment and
mechanical load is called as a drive
Electrical drive is an electric motor along with its
controlling devices, transmission equipment and
mechanical load

Factors Governing the Selection of Electric Drive

1. Nature of electric supply

a) AC supply
b) Pure DC supply
c) Rectified DC supply

2. Nature of drive
a) Individual drive
b) Group drive
c) Multi motor drive

Factors Governing the Selection of Electric Drive

3. Electrical characteristics
a) Operating or Running characteristics
b) Starting characteristics
c) Speed control
d) Braking characteristics

Factors Governing the Selection of Electric Drive

4. Mechanical considerations
a) Type of enclosure
b) Type of bearing
c) Type of transmission of drive
d) Noise level
e) Type of cooling system

Factors Governing the Selection of Electric Drive

5. Size and rating of the motor
Whether the motor is to work on
a) Continuous duty
b) Intermittent duty
c) Variable load cycle duty
Whether the motor is adequate for
a) Over-load capacity
b) Pull-out torque

Factors Governing the Selection of Electric Drive

6. Cost of the motor
Capital Cost
Running Cost
a)
b)
c)
d)

Power factor
Losses
Maintenance Cost
Depreciation

Comparison between AC & DC drives

AC Drive
1. No commutator problem
2. Speed and design rating
have no upper limits.
3. Large power/weight ratio.
4. Speed control variation is
limited .
5. Solid state converters
decides cost .

DC Drive
1. Heavier size due to
commutator.
2. Speed and design is
limited.
3. Small power/weight ratio.
4. Wide range and smooth
control of speed .
5. costly.

Elements of an Electric Drive

1. Electric motor
2. Speed control device
3. Power transmission equipment
4. Mechanical load

Elements of an Electric Drive

Power Supply
Electric motor
Speed Controller

Feed back

Power Transmission by
Coupling

Mechanical

load

Advantages of Electric Drive

It is quite clean due to the absence of fuel, fumes
etc..
Electric motors are available over a wide range of
power i.e., few watt (5W) to mega watt.
It is more flexible and can be moved to any place.
No need of fuel storage and fuel transportation.
Electrical energy is transmitted easily.

Advantages of Electric Drive

contd..1

It is more economical
No hazardous fuel is required
The maintenance is easy.
The starting and stopping of electric motors is easy
The noise level of electric drive is less
It occupies less floor area as compared to other
devices

Advantages of Electric Drive

contd..2

Electric devices provide a wide range of torques over

a wide range of speeds.
It can be remote controlled.
The operating characteristics of electric drive can be
easily modified.
It is a reliable drive.
The life of this drive is more.

Disadvantages of Electric Drive

Non- availability of drive on supply failure.
They require continuous power supply.
The drive cannot be used in far off places where
electricity is not available.
Problems of saturation of iron.

Classification of Electric Drives

Electric drives are classified into three types
1. Group drive
2. Individual drive
3. Multimotor drive

Group Drive
When several machines are loads are run on one
shaft and the shaft is driven by a single motor, the
system is called group drive

Group drive can also be called as shaft drive.

Advantages of Group Drive

The cost of single large motor is less, than the cost

of many motors of same aggregate rating

High over load capacity

Only one motor can be used

The rating of the motor can be less than sum of all

loads used

It is suited for textile mills where stoppage of one

operation necessitates stoppage of sequence of
operations

Disadvantages of Group Drive

A fault in the motor will leave all loads idle.

If only small load is to be used, the motor has to work

with light load. This results in reduced efficiency.

Power transmission through belts and pulleys is

inefficient. So efficiency is less.

The system is not very safe

Individual Drive
If one motor is used to drive one load that drive is called
individual drive
In individual drive each load has its own motor

Advantages of Individual Drive

A fault in the motor will not idle the other loads.
It eliminates all shafting and belting.
Machines can be installed at any desired place.
The system is very safe.
The noise level is less.
Motors operate at good power factor

Disadvantages of Individual Drive

The fixed or initial cost is high.
It is not suited for a sequence of operations.
The over load capacity of each motor will be less (about
5 to 10% only).

Multimotor Drive
In multi-motor drive, separate motors are used for
operating different parts of the same mechanism.
Multi-motor drive contains several individual drives,
each drive is used to operate its own mechanism
Multi-motor drives are used in machine tools, rolling
mills, overhead cranes etc.

Comparison between group drive and individual drive

Group Drive

Individual Drive

1. Initial cost is less.

1. more.

2. Single large motor is

used.

2. No. of motors equal to

No. of machines.

3. Future expansion is
very difficult.

3. Easy.

4. Machines should be
installed nearby shaft.
5. The speed control is
cumbersome .

4. Machines can be
installed at convenient
place.
5. Easy.

Types of loads according to Speed Torque

Characteristics
Loads requiring constant torque at all speeds
Loads requiring torque which may increase in direct
proportion to the speed
Loads requiring torque, which may increase with
the square of the speed
Loads requiring torque which may decrease with
the increase in speed

Speed-Torque Characteristics of different

loads

Load torque is decreasing

with the speed

III

IV

I
II
LOAD TORQUE

Curve I
Load torque is constant
with speed
Curve II
Load torque is increasing
with speed
Curve III
Load torque is increasing
with the square of the
speed
Curve IV

SPEED

Fig:1

Loads Requiring Constant Torque at all

Speeds
Examples
Cranes during hoisting
Hoist winches
Machine tool feed mechanisms
Piston pumps operating against a constant pressure
head

Conveyors handling a constant weight of the material per

unit time.

Loads Requiring Torque which may Increase in

Direct proportion to the Speed

Example
Fluid friction where
lubricant is used

Loads Requiring Torque which may Increase with

the Square of the Speed
Examples
Blowers
Fans
Centrifugal Pumps
Ship propellers

Loads Requiring Torque which may Decrease

with the Increase in Speed
Examples
Where deformation of material takes place such as
Lathes
Boring machines
Milling machines
Metal cutting machine tools
Steel mills

Classification of Loads with Respect to Time

Continuous constant loads
Continuous variable loads
Pulsating loads
Impact loads
Short time intermittent loads
Short time loads

Continuous Constant Loads

The load on the motor remains same for a
longer time
Examples: Fans and Pumps

Continuous Variable Load

The load on the motor varies continuously over a period
of time, but occurs repetitively for a longer duration
Examples
Conveyers
Metal cutting lathes

Pulsating Loads
Certain types of loads exhibit a torque behaviour which
can be thought of as a constant torque superimposed by
pulsation.
Examples
Compressors
Reciprocating pumps
Frame saws
Textile looms
All loads having crank shafts.

Impact Loads
The load on the motor increases to a maximum level
suddenly
These peak loads occur at regular intervals of time.
Motors driving these loads are equipped with fly wheels
for load equalization
Examples
Forging hammers
Rolling mills
Shearing machines
Presses etc

Short Time Loads

The load on the motor occurs periodically in identical
duty cycle, each consisting of a period of application of
load and rest.
Examples
Excavators
Cranes
Roller trains
Hoists.

Short Time Loads

The load on the motor remain constant and occurs for a
short time and then remain idle or off for a sufficiently
long time.
Examples
Mixies
Battery chargers
Most of the household equipments

Classification of Loads with Respect to Duty

Continuous duty
Continuous duty with constant load
Continuous duty with variable load cycle
Short time duty
Intermittent duty cycle

Selection of Motor for Continues Duty with

Constant Load Cycle
The motor should have the rating
sufficient to drive the load without
exceeding the specified temperature
The rating of the motor selected for
this duty is called its continuous
rating

Continuous rating means that it is the maximum load

that the motor can give continuously over a period of
time without exceeding the temperature limit

Selection of Motor for Continues Duty with

Constant Load Cycle
The motor selected for this duty should be able to
with stand momentary over load capacity.
The motor selected to this duty will have high
efficiency because they will be operating at its full
load and good power factor
Examples of this duty

Centrifugal pumps

Fans etc

Selection of Motor for Continuous Duty with

Variable Load Cycle
If load variations are slight,
highest load may be chosen
as the rating of the motor
If variation in the load are
large, selection of motor
involves thermal calculation
The selection of motor for this duty may be based
on average power or average current

Short Duty Load

In this class of duty constant load
occurs on the motor for a short
interval of time and then off for
sufficiently long time.
During off time the motor is allowed
to cooled down to ambient
temperature.
The examples of this duty are
Mixies
Crane drives
Lock gates
Bridges

time

Selection of Motor for Short Duty

The motor selected for this duty may be of smaller
capacity such that during the operation the temperature
should not exceed the limits

Intermittent or Periodic Intermittent Duty

The load on the motor is a sequence of identical duty

cycles.
The motor is loaded for some time and shut off for some
time.

Selection of Motor for Intermittent Duty

A motor of smaller capacity would be sufficient due to
rest periods in between successive loading

During rest period the motor is allowed to cool down to

ambient temperature

Selection of the Motor for given Load

In the selection of the motor the basic problem is of
matching the mechanical output of the motor with the
load requirement
Practically all electric motors, shunt wound, series
wound, compound wound d.c. motors ,squirrel cage and
slip ring induction motors and a.c commutator motors
have drooping speed-torque characteristics i.e. their
speed falls as the load torque increase.

Selection of the Motor for the Fan Load

For Example for driving a fan , whose load torque varies
as the square of the speed, induction motor among ac
motors and d.c shunt motor among d.c motors will be
suitable.

Load Equalization
It is usual to see the changes in load on any
machine in the industry.
The fluctuations in load vary widely within a span of
few seconds.
The process of smoothening these load fluctuations
is called Load Equalization.
The energy is saved during the interval of light load.

Necessity of Load Equalization

In industries there are many applications where load
variations are large .
A best example is the steel rolling mill operation
The load is very large during the rolling operation and very
little as the charge passes by.

The Following Figure Shows Load Curve Of A Rolling Mill

P^

>
T

Load Equalization

A Rolling mill will draw a heavy current from the supply

during the intervals of peak load.

This Produces large voltage drop in the system and it

requires cables and wires of large size.

It is desirable to smooth out these load fluctuations and so

load equalization is very necessary

Flywheel
The most common method of the load Equalization is by
the use of Flywheel.
A flywheel is a big wheel mounted on the same shaft of
the motor whose speed is to be controlled.
It may be defined as a heavy rotating body which acts as
a reservoir for absorbing and redistributing the kinetic
Energy

Flywheel for a Stationary Engine

Twin Flywheel for a Stationary Engine

A Tractor Fitted with a Fly Wheel

Fly wheel

Flywheel

Fig:2

Flywheel

Contd..

Its main function is to keep the speed of a motor within the

specified limits while doing a variable work .
During the light load period the flywheel accelerates and
stores the excessive energy drawn from the supply

During peak load period the flywheel decelerates and

supplies some of its stored energy to the load in addition to
the energy supplied from the supply .
In this way the speed of the motor will be maintained within
the required limits.

Variation of Speed with Respect to the Load Torque

The thick lines represent the
speed variation without

flywheel
The dashed lines represent the
speed variation with fly wheel.

>

Fig:3

It is clear that by using a Fly wheel the speed fluctuations of

the motor can be reduced.

Electric Braking
If an electric motor is to be stopped, the motor should be
disconnected from the supply
The motor takes a long time to stop because of inertia
It depends upon the kinetic energy it has gained during
the running period

58

Electric Braking

contd..

If the kinetic energy is more the motor takes long time to

stop
If the kinetic energy is less, it takes less time
In order to stop the motor at once to avoid accidents and
also to stop as and when required for a particular
operation of a job
Some system must be used called braking system

59

Electrical Braking
Kinetic energy of moving parts is converted in to
electrical energy

Kinetic energy of moving parts is opposed by producing

opposite energy

60

Advantages of Electric Braking

No need of replacement of brake shoes
No maintenance cost of brake shoes
System capacity can be increased
Part of energy is returned to the supply
Failure of brake is not possible
No metal dust is produced

61

continued

Advantages of Electric Braking

Braking torque is easily controllable
The system is quick
The system is more reliable
Higher rate of retardation
Long life
Passenger of lifts and trains does not feel any
discomfort
62

Disadvantages of Electric Braking

Extra friction brake is required

There must be suitable braking characteristics
High initial cost
Requires additional components

63

Types of Braking
Plugging or Counter- current braking

Dynamic or Rheostatic braking

Regenerative braking

64

Plugging
Either the field or armature terminals are reversed
suddenly during motor operation
A strong braking torque is developed
The system will come to rest
A special device will cut-off the supply
The motor will be stopped

65

Advantages of Plugging
Greater braking torque
Quick reversal
Rapid

66

Disadvantages of Plugging
Motor draws energy from supply

Kinetic energy is wasted

Motor draws very high current

Causes shock to the motor and equipment

67

Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking

The supply in the armature of the motor is disconnected
The motor is made to work as generator
The kinetic energy of moving parts is converted into
electrical energy
Which is dissipated in resistance connected as electrical
load, during braking period

68

Regenerative Braking
The motor is made to work as generator and the
electrical energy generated is fed back in to the supply
Magnetic drag is produced due to generating action
offers the required braking torque
When ever the value of back emf Eb becomes greater
than supply voltage, V
The direction of the current in the armature gets
reversed, the direction of field is same
69

Regenerative Braking
The torque produced in the opposite direction
The back emf is made greater than the supply voltage by
Reducing the supply voltage
Increasing the field excitation
Making the motor to run at a speed greater than
the no load speed

70

Normal Working of D.C Shunt Motor

Figure :1

Plugging applied to D.C Shunt Motor

Figure 2

Plugging to D.C Shunt Motor

The direction of torque
developed in the motor
can be reversed by
reversing the current
Current is reversed either
in the armature or In the
field winding
Reversal of field current
is rarely used
The armature current is
normally reversed

Braking Torque Derivation

During braking armature current
Ia =

V+Eb
Ra

(1)

Where V = supply voltage

Eb = back emf
Ra = armature resistance
The armature resistance is very small
The motor draws very heavy current
Braking resistance (Rb) is inserted

continued

Braking Torque Derivation

The current at the instant of braking
(2)
Ia = V+Eb
Ra+Rb
Electric braking torque, Tb Ia
Where = Flux
Tb = K1 Ia .. (3)
Substitute equation(2) in equation(3)
Tb = K1

V+Eb
Ra+Rb

........(4)

Braking Torque Derivation

We know the back emf of d.c motor
Eb N
Where N = speed in r.p.m
Eb= K2 N
..(5)
Substitute equation (5) in equation (4)
Tb = K1
Tb =

K1 V
Ra+Rb

V+ K2 N
Ra+Rb
K1K22N
+
Ra+Rb

)
(6)

continued

Braking Torque Derivation

Assume
K1 V
Ra+Rb
K1K2
Ra+Rb

= K3 = Constant
= K4 = Constant

Tb = K3 + K42N

(7)

In d.c shunt motor flux is constant

K3 = K 5
K4 = K 6

Braking torque, Tb = K5 + K6N

(8)

continued

Plugging of D.C Series Motor

The direction of torque developed in the motor can be
reversed by reversing the current either in the
armature or in the field winding
Reversal of field current is rarely used
The armature current is normally reversed
During plugging a series resistance is included in the
circuit to limit the current

Normal Working Of D.C Series Motor

Fig 3

Plugging Applied To D.C Series Motor

Fig 4

Braking Torque Derivation

During braking

V+Eb
Armature current, Ia =
Ra
Where V = supply voltage
Eb = back emf
Ra = Armature resistance
Rb = Braking resistance
Ib = Braking current

The armature resistance is very small

The motor draws very heavy current
Braking resistance (Rb) is inserted

Braking Torque Derivation

The current at the instant of braking
Ib =

V+Eb
Ra+Rb

(1)

Electric braking torque, Tb Ib

Where = Flux
Tb = K1 Ib .. (2)
Substitute equation(1) in equation(2)
Tb = K1

V+Eb )
(
Ra+Rb

........(3)

continued

continued

Braking Torque Derivation

We know the back emf of d.c motor
Eb N
Where N = speed in r.p.m
Eb= K2 N
..(4)
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3)
Tb = K1
Tb =

K1 V
Ra+Rb

V+ K2 N
Ra+Rb
2
K
K

N
1
2
+
Ra+Rb

continued

Braking Torque Derivation

Assume
K1 V
Ra+Rb
K1K22N

= K3 = Constant
= K4 = Constant

Ra+Rb
Tb = K3 + K42N

In d.c series motor flux is proportional to armature

current

Braking torque, Tb = K5Ia + K6Ia2N

Plugging to 3 Induction Motor

The direction of torque developed in the motor can be
reversed by reversing the direction of rotating magnetic
field
Direction can be reversed by interchanging of any two
stator phases
The reverse direction of magnetic field produces torque
in reverse direction
The motor will be stopped

Under Braking
The rate of cutting of the flux with the rotor conductors
gets doubled
At standstill the rotor e.m.f is two times higher than
running value
The rotor draws very high current
Rotor windings require additional insulation

Normal Working of 3 Induction Motor

Fig 5

Plugging applied to 3 Induction Motor

Fig 6

Torque-Slip Characteristics
During braking the slip of induction motor is greater than 1
The synchronous speed (Ns) is negative
The characteristic can be modified by adding external
resistance in slip ring induction motor
The brake must be applied before it approaches the stand
still speed
At the same time the power supply must be switched off

Torque-Slip Characteristics

Fig 7

Torque-Current Characteristics
The rotor current can be calculated from this
characteristic
Rotor current, I2 = SE2/(R22+SX22)

Where,
E2 e.m.f induced in rotor at stand still
R2 rotor resistance
X2 rotor reactance at stand still
S - slip

Torque-Current Characteristics

Fig 8

Dynamic Braking
Normal working of D.C series motor

v
Fig 1

Dynamic Braking applied to D.C Series Motor

Fig 2

Dynamic Braking to D.C Series Motor

The motor is disconnected
from the supply and field
connections are reversed
The motor is connected in
series with a variable
resistance R
The machine runs as
generator
The direction of current in
the field is same as before
It produces a braking torque
TB = k2.2.N
= k3.Ia2.N

Advantages of Dynamic Braking

Greater braking torque

Motor draws no energy from supply
Rapid braking i.e. motor comes to rest rapidly

Disadvantages of Dynamic Braking

Kinetic energy is wasted
It is dependent on supply
In case of induction motor it requires separate d.c
excitation

Dynamic Braking
Normal working of D.C. Shunt Motor

Fig 3

Dynamic Braking Applied to D.C Shunt Motor

(a)

(b)
Fig 4

Dynamic Braking applied to D.C Shunt Motor

The armature is
disconnected from the
supply
A braking resistance is
connected across the
armature
The field winding is left
across the supply
The motor acts as a
generator driven by stored
kinetic energy

Dynamic Braking applied to D.C Shunt Motor

The stored kinetic energy
is dissipated as heat
The motor will be stopped

TB = k2.2.N
TB N as the flux is
constant in D.C shunt
motor

Regenerative Braking

Regeneration takes place when Eb in the armature,

greater than applied voltage.
Motor run as Generator
Speed falls until Eb = V
Mechanical brakes are applied

Advantages
Motor draws no energy from supply
Energy is fed back to supply
Speed can be controlled

Disadvantages
Possible in only drives carrying overhauling loads.

Requires additional equipment

Applications
Separately excited d.c motors
D.C Series motor
D.C Shunt motor
D.C Compound motor
Induction motors

Regenerative Braking of D.C Series Motor

Fig 1

Regenerative Braking of D.C Series Motor

When the motor is driving

a overhauling load
The speed of the motor
increases
The back e.m.f is also
increases
The direction of armature
current is reversed

Regenerative Braking of D.C Series Motor

Special arrangements are
made
to reverse field winding
connections.
The motor acts as generator
and supplies energy.
This will reduce the speed
The motor comes to normal
operation

Regenerative Braking of D.C Shunt Motor

Regenerative Braking of D.C Shunt Motor

Regenerative braking is an
inherant characteristics of
shunt motor
When the motor is driving a
overhauling load the speed
of the motor increases
The back e.m.f Exceeds
(Eb>V) the supply voltage
The motor acts as
generator and energy will
be fed into the supply
system.

Regenerative Braking of D.C Series Motor

The machine will start
supplying current to the
line
The direction of armature
current Ia and the torque
is reversed
This will reduce the
speed until Eb < V
The motor comes to rest

Regenerative Braking of 3- Induction

Motor
When the motor is driving a overhauling load
The speed of the motor increases
The motor acts as induction generator and supplies
energy
This will reduce the speed
The motor comes to normal operation

Methods Used to Operate Induction Motor

Above Synchronous Speed

By using Frequency controlled induction motors

During Downward motion of a loaded hoisting

mechanism.
Change over to a large number of poles from a smaller
one in multi-speed squirrel cage induction motor.

Torque-Slip Characteristics

Regenerating Braking of 3 Phase Introduction Motor

In above all cases, the slip and torque developed
become negative
The machine acts as a generator
If the load drives the motor above synchronous speed
No switching operation is required
The braking operation starts and motor comes to normal
position

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