Kartikeya Tiwari

08BT01209
What is salinity?

What are its units?

Does it vary in oceans and if it

does then how and why?

Why is salinity important?

Defined as the mass of dissolved ions (<0.5 mm) in
a kg of seawater.
Absolute (or ideal) salinity is the mass fraction of
salts in seawater
 In practical terms, salinity is expressed as PSU
(practical salinity units) or PPM (Parts Per Mil) which
are based on water temperature and conductivity
measurements.
Salinity is generally expressed in parts per
thousand (ppm).
 For oceanic seawater, ppm and PSU are very
close.
Average salinity of SW is 35: means 3.5 ‰ of salt
and 96.5 ‰ of pure water.
 Salinity, Temperature and
Density
 Salinity - the total quantity of dissolved salts in
seawater.
 Salinity of seawater is reported in parts per
thousand – psu, ‰ or ppm
 Salinity has no units- It is a ratio.
 As a ratio of conductivities has no units, the
calculated salinity is also dimensionless.
 Salinity and Temperature jointly define density.
 Dense water sinks to a depth at which the
density of the surrounding water equals the
density of the introduced object.
 Salinity, Temperature and
Density for the Full Oceanic
Range of Values
 Heat
Budget by
Latitude
Heat gain is
compensated
for by ocean
currents and
transfer of
latent heat
polewards.

This is the
driving force
for the entire
ocean/
atmosphere
system.
 Stratified conditions
Stratified coastal waterways are characterised by a distinct
increase in salinity with water depth (Figure 2A). Stratification
occurs when riverine flow is sufficient to produce a plume of low-
density freshwater (1000 kg/m3 at 20oC) which can flow over
higher-density seawater (1025 kg/m3 at 20oC), and where tidal
currents and waves are not strong enough to mix the water
column (e.g. in wave-dominated estuaries). Such conditions can
lead to anoxic and hypoxic events because bottom waters can
become isolated from dissolved oxygen enriching processes,
including gas exchange across the water surface and
photosynthesis by plants in shallow water.
Estuaries
Salinity of estuaries usually increases away from a freshwater
source such as a river, although evaporation sometimes causes
the salinity at the head of the estuary to exceed seawater.
 Partially mixed conditions
In partially mixed coastal waterways, tidal currents generate
turbulence which promotes vertical mixing (Figure 2B). However,
the tidal currents are of insufficient strength to fully mix the water
column, and salinity varies both vertically and horizontally.

Fully mixed conditions

Fully mixed conditions occur in coastal waterways in cases where
tide, river or wave energy produces enough turbulence to mix the
water column (Figure 2C). In this case, salinity is uniform through
the water column, but varies between the riverine and oceanic
ends of the estuary.

Inverse estuary
High evaporation rates in the presence of low freshwater inflow can lead to
hyper-salinity in tidal embayments and wide shallow estuaries. Estuarine water
can become denser than oceanic waters under these conditions (Figure 2D),
and thus sink forming a highly saline bottom layer that flows seaward.
 What causes salinity regimes in coastal waters to change?

The salinity distribution within coastal waterways reflects the

relative influx of fresh water supplied by rivers, and marine water
supplied by exchange with the ocean (Figure 1). Salinity levels
fluctuate with the penetration of tidal flows, and with mixing of
fresh water and marine water by wind and currents. Freshwater
discharges to coastal waterways are primarily controlled by
conditions in the catchment including rainfall patterns, vegetation
type and cover, topography, catchment area, and geology.
Climatic factors may vary seasonally and inter-annually (e.g. with
El Nino Southern Oscillation events). Entrance size (and seasonal
closure in some areas) and sea level dictate marine water
exchange, and the extent to which salinity can build up within the
coastal waterway due to evaporation during times of low river flow
Decreased freshwater inflows, due to the diversion of rivers and
streams into impoundments, lead to the dissipation of salinity
gradients and extended periods of elevated salinity in the
landward sections of the estuary [4]. Both the vertical and
longitudinal salinity distributions will occur with resulting changes
in the circulation and mixing characteristics of the estuary.
Large incursions of stormwater runoff can severely depress
normal salinity levels in inshore areas.
Engineering works such as trained entrances and dredged
channels increase the water exchange between the estuary and
the ocean (increased flushing). This has implications for salinity
levels in a coastal waterway.
Salinity distribution in oceans
On sea surface, significantly controlled by processes of evaporation and
precipitation.
Highest at sub-tropics (20 to 30 0N and S) because of more evaporation than
rainfall
Evaporation and freezing  Salts excluded from vapor and ice, respectively
 World
Ocean salinity
and
temperature
Considerations for measurement and interpretation
The accepted method for determining the salinity of marine waters is by
measuring the conductivity (EC) and temperature of the waters, then
calculating the value of salinity using standard equations. A depth
determination is also required for greater accuracy in calculation of
salinities in deeper water.
Salinity is calculated using the ratio of the conductivity of the marine water
to the conductivity of a standard solution of pure water and potassium
chloride (KCl) at 15oC and one standard atmosphere in pressure, and in
which the mass fraction of the KCl is 32.4356x10-3 . This ratio is called the
K15 value, and is used to calculate salinity on the Practical Salinity Scale
1978 [20]. As a ratio of conductivities has no units, the calculated salinity
is also dimensionless. Thus for practicality, salinity is assigned Practical
Salinity Units (PSU). A salinity of 35.000 has a K15 of 1 and is the salinity
of standardised North Atlantic marine water that is slightly diluted. This is
the accepted standard for high accuracy calibration of salinity determining
instrumentation, and is sold with the appropriate recognition of the
International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean (IAPSO)
as the IAPSO Seawater Standard.
The main advantage of using PSU is that marine waters from around the world
can be compared on a common scale. Strictly speaking, this comparison is only
robust in open marine waters. There can be problems with the Practical Salinity
Scale 1978 in estuaries because the ion composition of freshwater inflow is
often different than that of seawater [9], and the conductivity measurement is
influenced by ion composition. One should therefore exercise caution in how
the acquired data and calculated salinities are used. For example, serious
problems may occur if these data are used for highly accurate density
calculations. When abundant freshwater inflow is apparent, one might consider
measuring salinity from the sum of the weights of the suite of major, minor ions,
and trace constituents. Suites of major ions (e.g. Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-,
SO42- and HCO3-+CO32-) are commonly used on their own, but incur small
charge-balance errors.
In practice the ratio of the waters and KCl solution are not
measured. Instead, calibrated sondes and probe measure
the conductivities, temperatures and depths. These values
are used to calculate the salinity in accordance with the
Practical Salinity Scale 1978. Some sondes do not provide
a PSU calculation. A seawater equation of state calculator
is available on the web, and can be used in such cases.
Salinity is determined in-situ using 'environmental water
quality' or 'oceanographic' sondes (or probes). These
instruments are often referred to as a CTD which is short for
conductivity, temperature and depth (depth is derived from
measurement of pressure). The conductivity probes have
two or more electrodes made of stainless steel, gold or
other suitable conductors that have a precise alternating
voltage applied which is used to determine the conductance
of the marine water in siemens per metre (S/m).
Some points to consider when making salinity determinations with
sondes:
Ensure that salinity values reported by the sonde are calculated in
accordance with the Practical Salinity Scale 1978.
Ensure the conductivity electrodes are cleaned appropriately often
and calibrated at regular intervals. The length of the period
between calibration and cleaning is determined by the user, as
they develop familiarity with instrument and the environment under
investigation.
The conductivity electrodes can corrode slightly and may also
acquire coatings from dissolved and suspended matter in the
water column. The coatings and corrosion can increase resistance
on the surface of the electrodes and reduce the accuracy of the
determinations. This can be a significant problem when sondes
are left in-situ for long periods of time (i.e. when they are used for
continuous monitoring).
Confirm the calibration of the sonde is stable across the range of
temperatures in the environment in which the measurements will
be taken because the electronics modules within the sondes may
be sensitive to - and not corrected for temperature variation. Do
not leave sondes in the sun prior to taking measurements
because this will increase the time required for temperature
equilibration.
Most sondes report salinity to three decimal places, but the
measure may only be accurate to one decimal place. It is best to
determine the level of accuracy required prior to a survey.
Always record the sondes report of temperature, conductivity and
depth (if available) as these are the key values used to calculate
salinity. Record reported salinity also. Be sure to routinely note the
units of conductivity the sonde is reporting, as the sondes display
can be toggled for different values. The last person to use the
sonde may have been recording specific conductance (a value
compensated usually to 25 C).
The temperature response on most sondes is not instant and lags
behind the conductance measurement. Thus equilibration time is
required for an accurate measurement and determination of
salinity. This requires the sonde to be stationary or very slow
moving. Estuaries often have a significant thermal gradient which
may be an issue if you are in a small boat rocking on the waves
attempting to attain a stable measurement. In the open ocean, by
comparison, the temperature response is usually rapid and thus
this is less of an issue. Half a degree error in water temperature
can cause a significant change in the salinity calculation.
To determine the salinity value to a high degree of accuracy, a
bench top precision salinometer, standardized seawater and a
temperature controlled room away from strong electromagnetic
fields is required.
How to measure Salinity?
Salinity of a sample is using conductivity—
determined as a ratio to a standard
of KCl (at 15 deg cel and 1 atm).
Practical salinity is calculated using a polynomial
equation
S=f (R, T and constants)
S = ao + a1R0.5 + a2R + a3R1.5 + a4R2 + a5R2.5 +
+ (t-15)/{1 + k(t-15)} [bo + b1R0.5 + b2R + b3R1.5 +
b4R2 +
b5R2.5]
3. Vertical distribution of water properties
Salinity in the surface ocean layer
 3. Vertical distribution of water properties

Pressure p (kiloPascal, 10 kPa = 1 dbar = 1 m);

Temperature T (degrees C);
Salinity S (Practical Salinity Units - psu);
correspond to promille (g salt/kg sea water);
Density ρ (kg m-3 ) represented by σ t = ρ - 1000.
IoE 184 - The Basics of Satellite Oceanography. 1. The Basic Concepts of Oceanography
 3. Vertical distribution of water properties

The water density is a function of temperature, salinity,

and pressure.

IoE 184 - The Basics of Satellite Oceanography. 1. The Basic Concepts of Oceanography
 Importance of salinity
Together with T, it controls the density-and hence the ocean
circulation.
Salinity can be used as tracer for origin and mixing of water masses
Salinity record physical processes (evaporation/precipitation) occurring
when it was at the surface.

Salinity is important in coastal waterways for the

following reasons:
Salinity is a dynamic indicator of the nature of the exchange system. The
salinity of the water within the estuary tells us how much fresh water has mixed
with sea water. Also, plots that show the relationship between salinity and other
soluble substances (e.g. nutrients) can be used to demonstrate the dynamic or
conservative nature of those substances in 'mixing plots';
Salinity is an important determinant of the mixing regime because of the density
variation associated with salinity variation, salinity stratification tends to inhibit
vertical mixing in an estuary; which can have important implications for
dissolved oxygen concentrations.
The circulation with estuaries and coastal regions can derive from or be
strongly influenced by the density variation associated with salinity. In effect,
dense saline water tends to flow under fresh water.
Salinity is an important ecological parameter in its own right; and it is important
in some chemical processes (discussed below).
 Ecological importance
Most aquatic organisms function optimally within a narrow range of salinity
(see example in Figure 5). When salinity changes to above or below this
range, an organism may lose the ability to regulate its internal ion
concentration. Indeed, 'osmoregulation' may become so energetically
expensive that the organism dies due to the direct physiological effects or it
becomes more vulnerable to biotic pressures such as predation,
competition, disease or parasitism. Consequently, shifting salinity
distributions can affect the distributions of macrobenthos [13] as well as
those of rooted vegetation (e.g. seagrasses) and sessile organisms [14].
The nature of the longitudinal salinity gradient (and the position of certain
isohalines) is an important factor in the successful recruitment of larval and
juvenile fish [6,16]. Salinity is also an important control on the types of
pathogenic organisms and invasive species that can occur in a coastal
waterway, on the types of species that can occur in algal blooms [5,10], and
on the activity of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria [8]. As a general rule,
widely-varying salinity regimes tend to select for a low-abundance and low-
diversity suite of species, which are adapted to a broad range of ionic
concentrations (e.g. euryhaline species).
Density= f( T, S)
Higher T means lower D, at fixed S
Higher S means higher D at fixed T
Water mass of different density is stratified
(means unmixed)—it takes longer time
to get mixed
 REFERENCES
 Google
 Encarta encyclopedia
 Google Images Search
 Prof. Anirban Das Lectures