Chapter 4

Efficiency of a
Displacement
Process
1

Efficiency of a Displacement
Process

Introduction
Microscopic Displacement of Fluid in a
Reservoir
Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids in a
Reservoir

EOR-Chapter 4

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

Production

Trapped Oil
EM

Injection

E = EM (Microscopic Efficiency) EV (Volumetric Efficiency)

EOR-Chapter 2

Overall Displacement Efficiency

E EV * ED
Where;

E =overall hydrocarbon displacement efficiency ,the

volume of hydrocarbon displaced divided by the volume of
hydrocarbon in place at the start of the process measured at
the same conditions of pressure and temperature
EV
ED

=Macroscopic (Volumetric) displacement efficiency

=Microscopic (Volumetric) hydrocarbon displacement efficiency.
EOR-Chapter 2

Microscopic & Macroscopic sweep efficiencies

ED

reservoir volume of oil mobilized by EOR agent

reservoir volume of oil contacted by EOR agent

reservoir volume of oil contacted by displacing agent

Ev
reservoir volume of oil originally in place

EOR-Chapter 2

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

Macroscopic Displacement

Where;

E EV ED
E

= Overall displacement efficiency

EV = Macroscopic displacement efficiency

ED = Microscopic displacement efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

However,

EV E A E L

EA

= Areal Sweep efficiency

EL

= Lateral Sweep efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

Oil Recovery Equation

Therefore, using all these definitions, the oil recovery equation is

NP

S oiVP
ED * E A * EL * (
)
BO

To use this equation we must have methods to evaluate the different

efficiencies.
Estimates are available from:
Correlations
Scaled laboratory experiments
Numerical simulation
EOR-Chapter 2

Oil Recovery Equation

and

ER

is the volumetric sweep efficiency defined as

ER

Volume of hydrocarbo n displaced

Volume of hydrocarbo n in place

typical values of the overall recovery efficiency

Steam injection
Polymer injection
CO2 injection
Solvent injection

ER
ER
ER
ER

are:

30%-50%
30%-55%
30%-65%
35%-63%

EOR-Chapter 2

Action on Sweep & Displacement Efficiency

By increasing water
viscosity
Action on Sweep
Efficiency at the
Macroscopic Scale

Steam drive
By decreasing the oil
viscosity
By using a miscible
displacing fluid

Action on Displacement
Efficiency at the Pore
Scale

Polymer
flooding

By reducing the
interfacial tension
By action on the
rock wettability
EOR-Chapter 2

In-situ combustion
Carbon dioxide drive
Miscible hydrocarbon
gas flooding
Surfactant flooding
Alkaline flooding
10

Microscopic Displacement of Fluids

Microscopic efficiency largely determines the success or
failure of any EOR process. For crude oil it is reflected in the
magnitude of Sor ( i.e., the residual oil saturation remaining
in the reservoir rock at the end of the process).

EOR-Chapter 2

11

Displacement Sweep Efficiency

ED

Volume of oil mobilized

Volume of contacted oil

This efficiency is measured directly from a coreflood (since EV =1). It can also be
evaluated from the Buckley-Leveret (or fractional flow theory). For an immiscible
displacement E D is bounded by a residual phase saturation of the displaced phase Sor.
Miscible displacements eliminate - in principle - S
or

EOR-Chapter 2

12

Example

Initial oil saturation, Soi, is 0.60 and Sor in the

swept region for a typical water flood is 0.30
ED = (Soi Sor) / Soi

ED= ( 0.60 0.30 ) / 0.60

ED=0.50

A typical waterflood sweep efficiency, Ev, at the

economic limit is 0.70. Therefore,
E =EDEV = 0.50 X 0.70 = 0.35

EOR-Chapter 2

13

Important factors relating to microscopic

displacement behavior

Capillary Forces

Surface Tension and IFT

Solid Wettability
Capillary Pressure

Viscous Forces

EOR-Chapter 2

14

Important factors relating to microscopic

displacement behavior

Capillary forces have a detrimental effect,

being responsible for the trapping of oil
within the pore.
Trapping is a function of the ratio of
Viscous to Capillary forces.
The residual oil saturation decreases as the
ratio (Viscous force/ Capillary force)
increases.
EOR-Chapter 2

15

Capillary Forces: Surface Tension and IFT

Whenever immiscible phases coexist in a porous as in essentially all

processes of interest, surface energy related to the fluid interfaces
influences the saturations, distributions and displacement of the phases.

Oil
Connate Water

Sand Grain

Close up of oil water betweenEOR-Chapter

grains of rock
2

16

Capillary Forces: Surface Tension and IFT

The surface force, which is a tensile force, is

quantified in terms of surface tension
Air or Vapor

L
Liquid
The force per unit length required to create additional
surface area is the surface tension, usually expressed in
dynes/cm.

EOR-Chapter 2

17

Capillary Forces: Surface Tension and IFT

The term surface tension usually is reserved for the

specific case in which the surface is between a liquid and
its vapor or air. If the surface is between two different
liquids, or between liquid and solid, the term interfacial
tension is used.
The surface tension of water in contact with its vapor at
room temperature is about 73 dynes/cm.
IFTs between water and pure hydrocarbons are about 30
to 50 dynes/cm at room temperature.

EOR-Chapter 2

18

Capillary Forces: Surface Tension and IFT

One of the simplest ways to measure the surface tension of liquid is to use a capillary
tube.
At the static condition the force owing to surface tension will be balanced by the force
of gravity acting on the column of fluid.

rh( w o ) g

2 cos

EOR-Chapter 2

19

Capillary Forces- Solid Wettability

Fluid distribution in porous media are affected not only by

the forces at fluid/fluid interfaces, but also by force of
fluid/solid interfaces.
Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread on or
adhere to a solid surface in the presence of a second fluid.
When two immiscible phases are placed in contact with a
solid surface, one phase is usually attracted to the solid
more strongly than the other phases. The more strongly
attracted phase is called the wetting phase.

EOR-Chapter 2

20

Capillary Forces- Solid Wettability

Rock wettability affects the nature of fluid saturations and

the general relative permeability characteristics of a
fluid/rock system.
The following figure shows residual oil saturations in a
strongly water-wet and a strongly oil-wet rock.

Water-wet System

EOR-Chapter 2

Oil-wet System

21

Capillary Forces- Solid Wettability

Wettability can be quantitatively treated by examining

the interfacial forces that exist when two immiscible
fluid phases are in contact with a solid.

ow
Water

os

ws
os ws ow cos
EOR-Chapter 2

22

Wettability
os ws ow cos

Where ow , os , ws = IFTs between

water and oil, oil and solid, and water
and solid respectively, dynes/cm.

, contact angle, measured through

the water

EOR-Chapter 2

23

Capillary Forces- Capillary Pressure

A pressure difference exists

across the interface. This
pressure, called Capillary
pressure can be illustrated by
fluid rise in capillary tube.
The figure shows rise in a glass
capillary. The fluid above the
water is an oil, and because the
water preferentially wets the
glass of the capillary, there is a
capillary rise.
EOR-Chapter 2

24

Capillary Pressure Equation

The difference pressure between oil water at

the oil/water interface

p o p w h( w o ) g p c

ow
or

rp c

2 cos
2 ow cos
Pc
r
EOR-Chapter 2

25

Capillary Forces- Capillary Pressure

Capillary pressure is related to

the fluid/ fluid IFT

Relative permeability of fluids (through )
Size of capillary (through r)
The phase with the lower pressure will always be the phase that
preferentially wets the capillary.

Pc varies inversely as a function of the capillary radius and

increases as the affinity of the wetting phase for the rock
surface increases.

EOR-Chapter 2

26

Viscous Force

Viscose forces in a porous medium are reflected in the

magnetude of the pressure drop that occurs as a result of
fluid flow through porous medium.
One of the simplest approximations used to calculate the
viscous force is to consider a porous medium as a bundle
of parallel capillary tubes.
With this assumption, the pressure drop for laminar flow
through a single tube is given by Poiseuilles law.

EOR-Chapter 2

27

Viscous Force

Capillary Number
N ca

ow

Water floods typically operates at conditions

where Nca < 10-6, and Nca values on the order
of 10-7 are probably most common.

EOR-Chapter 2

28

Displacement Sweep Efficiency is a function of

Mobility ratios
Throughput or Transmissibility
Wettability
Dip angle
Capillary number

EOR-Chapter 2

29

Displacement Sweep Efficiency

All sweep efficiencies can be increased by decreasing the
mobility ratio by either:
Lowering

Oil or k rw

Increasing

water or k ro i.e. polymer flooding

i.e. steam flooding

Oil recovery would still be limited by the residual or trapped

oil saturation. Methods that target to reduce this saturation
include solvent flooding.
EOR-Chapter 2

30

Trapped Oil Saturation

Experimental evidence suggests that under most conditions the residual oil saturation
(usually a non-wetting phase) can be as large as the wetting phase saturation.
The relationship between trapping wetting or non-wetting phase and a local capillary
number indicates experimental evidence of trapping in a permeable media. This
relationship is called the capillary desaturation curve.
The local capillary number is
Where

NC

=displacing fluid viscosity

interfacial tension between displacing and displaced fuid

u = displacing superficial velocity
EOR-Chapter 2

31

Trapped Oil Saturation

Typical capillary desaturation curve

EOR-Chapter 2

32

Trapped Oil Saturation

Note that it is required a substantial increase in the capillary number to reduce the
residual oil saturation. The capillary number can be increased by either.
Lowering interfacial tension
miscible/solvent methods
Increasing viscosity of displacing fluid
polymer flooding.
There are physical, technical and economic limits of how much can the displacing
fluid viscosity and velocity be increased, thus solvent methods are the natural
choice to increase the capillary number and therefore lower the residual oil
saturation
Capillary desaturation curves are also affected by wettability, and pore size
distribution.
EOR-Chapter 2

33

Viscous Force

Viscous forces in a porous medium can be expressed in

terms of Darcys law:
L
p (0.158)(
)
k
p pressuredr op, psi
average velocity, ft / D
vis cos ity, cp
L length, ft
porosity
k permeability, darcies
EOR-Chapter 2

34

Calculation of pressure gradient

for viscous oil flow in a rock
1 1
p A p B 2 ow cos

rA rB

EOR-Chapter 2

35

Example: Calculation of pressure

gradient for viscous oil flow in a rock

Calculate the pressure gradient for flow of an oil with

10 cp viscosity at an interstitial flow rate of 1 ft/D. the
rock permeability is 250 md and the porosity is 0.2.
Solution:

L
p (0.158)(
)
k

p
0.158 1.0 ft / D 10 cp 0.2

1.264 psi / ft
L
0.250 darcies

EOR-Chapter 2

36

Example: pressure required to force an oil trap

through a pore throat

Calculate the threshold pressure necessary to force an oil trap

through a pore throat that has a forward radius of 6.2 micro meter
and radius of 15 micro meter. Assume that the wetting contact angle
is zero and IFT is 25 dynes/sec.
PB-PA=2*25(1/0.00062-1/0.0015)= - 47300 dynes/cm2
-47300*1.438*10^-5= - 0.68 psi

p / L

0.68 psi
0.01 cm

30.48 cm
ft

EOR-Chapter 2

2073 psi / ft

37

Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids in Reservoir

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency & Material

Balance
Volumetric Displacement Efficiency Expression
Definition & Discussion of Mobility Ratio
Areal Displacement Efficiency
Correlations
Vertical Displacement Efficiency
Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

38

Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids In a Reservoir

Introduction
Oil recovery in any displacement process depends on the volume of
reservoir contacted by the injected fluid. A quantitative measure of this
contact is the volumetric displacement (sweep) efficiency defined as the
fraction of reservoir (or project )PV that has been contacted or affected by
the injected fluid. Clearly, EV is a function of time in a displacement
process.
Overall displacement efficiency in a process can be viewed conceptually as
a product of the volumetric sweep, EV ,and the microscopic efficiency, ED

EOR-Chapter 2

39

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency and Material Balance

Volumetric displacement ,or sweep efficiency, is often used to

estimate oil recovery by use of material-balance concepts. for
example, consider a displacement process that reduces the initial
oil saturation to a residual saturation in the region contacted by the
displacing fluid. If the process is assumed to be piston-like, the oil
displaced is given by

S o1 S o 2
Np (

)V p EV
Bo1 Bo 2

Where ;

N p = oil displaced , S o1 = oil saturation at the beginning of the

displacement process, S o 2 = residual oil saturation at the end of the process in
the volume of reservoir contacted by the displacing fluid, Bo1 = FVF at initial
conditions, Bo 2 = FVF at the end of the process, and V p = reservoir PV
EOR-Chapter 2

40

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency and Material Balance

RF
Where;

Np
N1

ED EV

N1

=OOIP at the beginning of the displacement process. if displacement

performance data are available, above Eq. also can be used to estimate
volumetric sweep. For example, if waterflood recovery data are available, the
equation can be rearranged to solve for

EV

Np
S o1
So 2
Vp (

)
Bo1
Bo 2
EOR-Chapter 2

41

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency and Material Balance

EV

Where

Np

Np
S o1
So 2
Vp (

)
Bo1
Bo 2

= oil produced in the waterflood.

EOR-Chapter 2

42

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency Expressed as the product of

Areal and Vertical Displacement Efficiencies
Volumetric sweep efficiency can be considered conceptually as
the product of the areal and vertical sweep efficiencies. Consider
a reservoir that has uniform porosity,thickness,and hydrocarbon
saturation, but that consists of several layers. For a displacement
process conducted in the reservoir, EV can be expressed as

EV E A * E L
EOR-Chapter 2

43

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

EA
Where ;

EL

Area contacted by displacing agent

Total area
Length contacted by displacing agent
Total vertical length

All efficiencies are expressed as fractions. E A is the volumetric sweep

efficiency of the region confined by the largest areal sweep efficiency in the
system.
For a real reservoir, in which porosity,thickness,and hydrocarbon saturation vary
areally, E A is replaced by a pattern sweep efficiency ,

EV E P E L
EOR-Chapter 2

44

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

Where ;

EV E P E L

E p =pattern sweep (displacment)efficiency,hydrocarbon pore space enclosed

behind the injected-fluid front divided by total hydrocarbon pore space in the
pattern or reservoir a real reservoir.
In essence, E p is an ideal sweep efficiency that has been corrected for variations
in thickness,porosity,and saturation. In either case, overall hydrocarbon recovery
efficiency in a displacement process may be expressed as

E EP EL ED
EOR-Chapter 2

45

This figure illustrates the concept of the vertical and

areal sweep efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

46

The following figure illustrate the definition

of areal sweep efficiency

Areal contracted by displacing agent

EA
Total area
EOR-Chapter 2

47

Oil Recovery Equation

E A Areal Sweep Efficiency
The most common source of areal sweep efficiency data is from
displacements in scaled physical models. Several correlations exist
in the literature. Craig (1980) in his SPE monograph the reservoir
engineering aspects of waterflooding discusses several of these
methods.
These correlations are for piston like displacements in
homogeneous, confined patterns. When the well patterns are
unconfined, the total area can be much lager and smaller .

EOR-Chapter 2

48

AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY

When oil is produced from patterns of injectors and producers, the flow is
such that only part of the area is swept at breakthrough. the expansion of
the water bank is initially radial from the injector but eventually is focused
at the producer.

The pattern is illustrated for a direct line drive at a mobility ratio of unity.At
breakthrough a considerable area of theEOR-Chapter
reservoir is2 unswept.

49

Parameters Affecting E A

The following definitions are needed to describe the effects of

reservoir and fluid properties upon the efficiencies:
Mobility Ratio
Dimensionless Time
Viscous Fingering
Injection/Production well pattern
Reservoir permeability heterogeneity
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Gravity Effect
Gravity/ Viscous Force Ratio
EOR-Chapter 2

50

Mobility Definition

The mechanics of displacement of one fluid with

another are controlled by differences in the ratio
of effective permeability and viscosity k

The specific discharge (flow per unit cross

k
sectional area) for each fluid phase depends on

This is called the fluid mobility( ):

EOR-Chapter 2

51

Mobility Control
W

kW

kO

Mobility controls the relative ease with which fluids can flow
through a porous medium.

M D / d

= mobility of the displacing fluid phase

d = mobility of the displaced fluid phase
EOR-Chapter 2

52

Mobility ratio

The mobility ratio is an extremly important parameter in

any displacement process. It affects both areal and vertical
sweep, with sweep decreasing as M increases for a given
volume of fluid injected.

M <1 then favorable displacement

M >1 then unfavorable displacement

EOR-Chapter 2

53

Dimensionless Time
This variable is used to scale-up between the laboratory and the
field . The dimensionless time is defined as the

Cumulative Volume Of injected fluid

tD
Re frence pore volume
There are various definitions for the reference pore volume
according to the application.

EOR-Chapter 2

54

Viscous Fingering

The mechanics of displacing one fluid with another are

relatively simple if the displaced fluid (oil) has a tendency to
flow faster than the displacing fluid (water).

Under these circumstances, there is no tendency for the

displaced fluid to be overtaken by the displacing fluid and the
fluid fluid (oil-water) interface is stable.

EOR-Chapter 2

55

Viscous Fingering

If the displacing fluid has a tendency to move faster than

the displaced fluid, the fluid-fluid interface is unstable.
tongues of displacing fluid propagate at the interface.
This process is called viscous fingering.

EOR-Chapter 2

56

Viscous Fingering
E A - Decreases when the mobility ratio increases because the displacement

front becomes unstable. This phenomena, known as viscous fingering results in

an early breakthrough for the displacing fluid, or into a prolonged injection to
achieve sweep-out. The next figure illustrates this phenomena, which is
commonly observed in solvent flooding.

EOR-Chapter 2

57

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

58

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

59

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

60

Permeability Heterogeneity

It is often has a marked effect on areal sweep.

This effect may be quite different from
reservoir to reservoir, however, and thus it is
difficult to develop generalized correlations.
Anisotropy in permeability has great effect on
the efficiency.

EOR-Chapter 2

61

Effect of Mobility Ratio

The following figures show fluid fronts at different

points in a flood for different mobility ratios. These
results are based on photographs taken during
displacements of one colored liquid by second,
miscible colored liquid in a scaled model.

EOR-Chapter 2

62

Correlations Based on .
Correlations Based on Miscible Fluids, Five-Spot Pattern.
Figure 1 shows fluid fronts at different points in a flood for
different mobility Ratios. The Viscosity Ratio varied in different
floods and, because only one phase was present, M is given by
Equation.

d
M
D

EOR-Chapter 2

63

Producing well

Injection well

Pore Volumes Injected

Pore Volumes Injected

Breakthrough

M=0.151

Breakthrough

M=1.0

Figure-1: Miscible displacement in a quarter of

a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios<=1.0

EOR-Chapter 2

64

BT

BT
PV

PV
0.3

0.3
0.2

0.2

0.1
0.06

0.1

M=4.58

M=2.40
PRODUCING WELL

PV=PORE VOLUME INJECTED

X INJECTION WELL

BT=BREAKTHROUGH

Figure 2: Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility

ratios>1.0,viscous fingering (from Habermann)
EOR-Chapter 2

65

BT

BT

0.15
0.05
M=71.5

M=17.3
PRODUCING WELL

PV=PORE VOLUME INJECTED

X INJECTION WELL

BT=BREAKTHROUGH

Figure-3: Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility

ratios>1.0,viscous fingering (from Habermann)
EOR-Chapter 2

66

Correlations Based on .

Habermann presented values of EA as a function of

dimensionless PVs injected,Vi/Vp,after breakthrough, as shown
in Figure 4 Results are given for M=0.216 (favorable) to 71.5
Correlations
Based on Miscible Fluids, Other Patterns
(unfavorable).
Numerous modeling studies for patterns other than a five-spot
have been reported. Craig gives a summery listing of references.
As an example of such studies, Figure 5 shows one reported result
of areal sweep as a function of mobility ratio for one-eighth of a
nine-spot pattern.
EOR-Chapter 2

67

Areal Sweep Efficiency, EA%

Pore Volume Injected, Vi/ Vp

Figure-4: Areal sweep efficiency after breakthrough as a function of

mobility ratio and PVs injected
EOR-Chapter 2

68

Correlation Based on
Miscible Fluids

Numerous modeling studies for

patterns other than a five-spot
have been reported.
One-eight of a nine-spot pattern is
shown as an example.
This study was conducted with
miscible liquids and the X-ray
shadowgraph method
EOR-Chapter 2

69

Figure-5:Areal sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio;

EOR-Chapter 2

70

Correlations Based on
Immiscible Fluids, Five Spot
Pattern

Craig et al. conducted an experimental study of areal

displacement efficiency for immiscible fluids consisting
of oil, gas, and water.The study was conducted in
consolidated sandstone cores, and fronts were monitored
with the X-ray shadowgraph technique.

Figure 6 compares areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough

as a function of mobility ratio to the data of Dyes et al.,
which were obtained with miscible fluids.

EOR-Chapter 2

71

Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough ,EAbt%

Water-Gas
Gas-Oil
Miscible

Mobility Ratio,M
Figure-6: Areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of mobility
ratio( immiscible fluid displacement);
EOR-Chapter 2

72

Prediction of Areal Displacement

Performance on the Basis of Modeling Studies

Prediction based on Piston-Like

Displacement

Caudle & Witte correlation

Claridge correlation (viscous fingering)
Mahaffey et. Al model (dispersion )

Parallel plate glass model

Mathematical Modeling-Numerical
EOR-Chapter 2

73

Prediction of Areal Displacement Performance

on the Basis of Modeling Studies

Prediction Based on Piston Like Displacement.

Caudle and Witte published results from laboratory models of a
five-spot pattern in which displacements were conducted with
miscible liquids.
The performance calculations are restricted to those floods in
which piston-like displacement is a reasonable assumption; i.e.,
the displacing phase flows only in the swept region and the
displaced phase flows in the upswept region. No production of
displaced phase occurs from the region behind the front.
EOR-Chapter 2

74

Prediction Based on Piston Like Displacement

Figure 7 through 9 show data from the experiments. In Figure 7, EA
is given as a function of M for various values of injected PVs.
The ratio Vi/Vpd is a dimensionless injection volume defined as
injected volume divided by displaceable PV, Vpd. For a waterflood,
Vpd is given by

V pd Ah ( Soi Sor )
Figure 8 gives EA as a function of M for different values of the
fractional flow of the displacing phase ,fD, at the producing well.
EOR-Chapter 2

75

Prediction Based on Piston Like Displacement

Figure 9 presents the conductance ratio,

, as a function of M for various values
of EA, but only for values of M between 0.1 and 10. Conductance is defined as
q
injection rate divided by the pressure drop across the pattern,

At any mobility ratio other than M=1.0,conductance will change as the

displacement process proceeds. For a favorable mobility ratio, conductance will
decrease as the area swept, EA, increases. The opposite will occur for unfavorable
M values.
The conductance ratio, shown in Figure 9 is the conductance at any point of
progress in the flood divided by the conductance at that same point for a
displacement in which the mobility ratio is unity (referenced to the displaced
phase).

EOR-Chapter 2

76

Prediction Based on Piston Like Displacement

By combining Figures 7 through 9 , performance calculations can be

performed. Areal sweep, as a function of volume injected, is available
from Figure 7.
Fractional production of either phase can be determined with Figure
8.
Rate of injection may be determined as a function of E A from Figure
9.
To apply Figure 9, however , it is also necessary to use the appropriate
expression for initial injection rate. This is given by Craig for a fivespot pattern using parameters for the displaced phase:

EOR-Chapter 2

77

Prediction Based on Piston Like Displacement

0.001538k k rd hp
i
d
d (log
0.2688)
rw
Where i=injection rate at start of a displacement process, B/D;
p permeability of
k=absolute rock permeability ,md;Krd=relative

displaced phase, h=reservoir thickness ,ft;

=pressure drop, psi;
=viscosity of displaced phase, cp;d=distance measured between
injection and production wells ,ft; and rw= wellbore radius, ft.
At any point in the flood, the flow rate is given by

q i
EOR-Chapter 2

78

Areal Sweep Efficiency,EA

Figure-7: Areal Sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio and
injected volume.
EOR-Chapter 2

79

Areal Sweep Efficiency,EA

Mobility Ratio,M

Figure-8:Areal sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio and

fractional flow at displacing phase
EOR-Chapter 2

80

Conductance Ratio,

Mobility Ratio,M

Figure-9:Conductance ratio as a function of mobility ratio and areal sweep.

EOR-Chapter 2

81

Example: Performance Calculations Based on

Physical Modeling Results

A waterflood is conducted in a five-spot pattern in which the pattern area is 20 acres. Reservoir properties are:

h 20 ft
0.2
S oi 0.8
S or 0.25

o 10 cp
w 1 cp
Bo 1.0 RB / STB
k 50 md
k rw 0.27( at ROS )
k ro 0.94( at S wi )
p 1250 psi
rw 0.5 ft
EOR-Chapter 2

82

Required
Use the method of Caudle and Witte to calculate:
(1) the barrels of oil recovered at the point in time
at which the producing WOR=20 ,
(2) the volume of water injected at the same point
(3) the rate of water injection at the same point in
time
(4) the initial rate of water injection at the start of
waterflood
EOR-Chapter 2

83

Solution

Apply the correlations in Figs 7 through 9

1. Calculate oil recovered

2. Calculate total water injected. From Fig 7, Vi/Vpd=2.5 (at E A=.94)

M=2.9, fD=20/21=.95 From Fig 8, EA=.94

Np=321000 STB
Vpd = Vp (Soi Sor) = 341300 bbl
Vi = Vpd x 2.5 = 853300 bbl

3. Calculate water injection rate at the same point in time. From

i

0.001538k k rd hp
d
d (log 0.2688)
rw

i=63.4 B/D
From Fig. 9, =2.7, from

q i=

63.4x2.7 = 171 B/D

4. Calculate initial water injection rate

i=63.4 B/D
EOR-Chapter 2

84

Calculation of EA with
Mathematical Modeling

Models are based on Numerical

analysis methods and digital
computers

Douglas et al-2D immiscible displacement.

This method is based on the numerical
solution of the PDEs that describe the flow
of two immiscible phases in two dimensions
Higgins and Leighton mathematical model is
based on frontal advance theory
EOR-Chapter 2

85

Comparison of calculated and

experimental results, 5 spot pattern
(Douglas et al.)

EOR-Chapter 2

86

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

Vertical sweep ( displacement) efficiency, pore space invaded by the

injected fluid divided by the pore space enclosed in all layers behind
the location of the leading edge (leading areal location) of the front.
Areal sweep efficiency, must be combined in an appropriate manner
with vertical sweep to determine overall volumetric displacement
efficiency. It is useful, however, to examine the factors that affect
vertical sweep in the absence of areal displacement factors.
EOR-Chapter 2

87

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

88

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

Vertical Displacement Efficiency is controlled primarily by

four factors:
Heterogeneity
Gravity effect

Gravity segregation caused by differences in density

Mobility ratio
Vertical to horizontal permeability variation
Capillary forces

EOR-Chapter 2

89

Heterogeneity
Observation of thre figure indicates a stratified reservoir with layers of different
permeability. The displacement of the fluid is an idealized piston-flow type. Due to
the permeability contrast the displacing fluid will break through earlier in the first
layer, while the entire cross-section will achieve sweep-out at a later time, when
layer #4 breaks through.

EOR-Chapter 2

90

Heterogeneity:Location of the water

front at different Location

EOR-Chapter 2

91

Heterogeneity:Dykstra-Persons
model

EOR-Chapter 2

92

Gravity Segregation in Horizontal Bed

Water tongue
Water

Gas umbrella
Gas
EOR-Chapter 2

93

Gravity Effect
Gravity is a factor that affects the vertical efficiency not only in heterogeneous
reservoirs but in homogenous as well.
Gravity effects will be important when: (1) vertical communication is good. This is
1
satisfied when RL is large.
v 2
L

L k
R
( )
H k

(2) When gravity forces are strong compared to viscous forces. This is satisfied
when the gravity number Ng is large.

Ng

kg

u
EOR-Chapter 2

94

Gravity Effect

Where:
= relative mobility of displacing fluid
= density difference (displaced - displacing)

u = superficial velocity
Both numbers are dimensionless.
The following figures indicate gravity effects for two different situations
1- Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid
The displacing fluid will tend to flow to the top of the reservoir and bypass the
fluid in the lower region (tongue over).
EOR-Chapter 2

95

Gravity Effect
Tonguing will occur when M < 1 as long as R Land Ng are large. The effect of
heterogeneity and gravity can be mitigated by a favorable mobility ratio.
Gravity tonguing does not require a dipping reservoir (although dipping can be
used as an advantage when gravity is important). Gravity tonguing is important in
steam flooding applications.

Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid

EOR-Chapter 2

96

Gravity Effect

Density of displacing fluid higher than density of displaced fluid

EOR-Chapter 2

97

Effect of Gravity Segregation and Mobility Ratio on

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

Gravity segregation occurs when the injected fluid is less dense

than the displaced fluid, Figure10a.
Gravity override is observed in steam displacement, in-situ
combustion, CO2 flooding, and solvent flooding processes.
Gravity segregation also occurs when the injected fluid is more
dense than the displaced fluid, as Figure10b shows for a
waterflood.
Gravity segregation leads to early breakthrough of the injected
fluid and reduced vertical sweep efficiency.
EOR-Chapter 2

98

Gravity Segregation in displacement processes

Displacing
Phase
Displaced
Phase
Displaced
Phase

Gravity Override (a) D d

Displacing
Phase
Displacing
Phase

Displaced
Phase

Gravity Underride (b) D d

Figure-10: Gravity Segregation in displacement processes.

EOR-Chapter 2

99

Experimental Result

Craig et al. studied vertical sweep efficiency by conducting

a set of scaled experiments in linear systems and five-spot
models. Both consolidated & unconsolidated sands were
used.
The linear models used were from 10 to 66 in. long with
length/height ratios ranging from 4.1 to 66.
Experiments were conducted with miscible and immiscible
liquids having mobility ratios from 0.057 to 200.
Immiscible water floods were conducted at M<1.
Vertical sweep was determined at breakthrough by material
balance and visual observation of produced effluent

EOR-Chapter 2

100

Craig et al. Results

Results of the linear displacements are shown in the next Figure,

where EI at breakthrough is given as a function of dimensionless
group called a viscous/gravity ratio.

EOR-Chapter 2

101

Vertical sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a

function of the ratios of viscous/gravity forces,
Linear system (from Craig et al.)

EOR-Chapter 2

102

Example: Relative Importance of Gravity

Segregation in a Displacement Process

A miscible displacement process will be used to displace

oil from a linear reservoir having the following
properties:

EOR-Chapter 2

103

Solution

EOR-Chapter 2

104

Mathematical Model

Spivak used a 2D and 3D numerical model to study

gravity effects during water flooding and gas
flooding

EOR-Chapter 2

105

Gravity Segregation in two-phase flow

EOR-Chapter 2

106

The correlations of Craig et al. and Spivak on

gravity segregation
The correlations of Craig et al. and Spivak indicate the
following effects of various parameters on gravity
segregation, as summarized by Spivak

Gravity segregation increases with increasing horizontal and vertical

permeability.
Gravity segregation increases with increasing density difference
between the displacing and displaced fluids.
Gravity segregation increases with increasing mobility ratio
Gravity segregation increases with increasing rate. This effect can be
reduced by viscous fingering
Gravity segregation decreases with increasing level of viscosity for a
fixed viscosity ratio.
EOR-Chapter 2

107

Flow Regions in Miscible Displacement at Unfavorable

Mobility Ratios
Flow experiments in a vertical cross section in horizontal porous media have
shown that four flow regions, are possible when the mobility ratio is
unfavorable.
Region I occurs at very low
values and is characterized by a
R
V /g

single gravity tongue, with the displacing liquid either underriding

RV a
RV / g
or overriding the displaced liquid. Vertical sweep is
/ g strong
function of
.At larger
values, in region II, a single
gravity tongue still exists, but vertical sweep is relatively
insensitive to the value of the viscous/gravity ratio.
SOLVENT
Oil

(A) REGIONS I AND II

EOR-Chapter 2

108

Flow Regions in Miscible Displacement at Unfavorable

Mobility Ratios
The transition to region III occurs at a particular critical RV / g value.
In region III, viscous fingers are formed along the primary gravity tongue
and appear as secondary fingers along the primary gravity tongue. Vertical
sweep is improved by the formation of the viscous fingers in this region.
In region IV ,flow is dominated by the viscous forces and by viscous
fingering. A gravity tongue does not form because of the strong viscous
fingering. The vertical sweep in this region is relatively insensitive to RV / g
SOLVENT

SOLVENT
Oil

Oil

(C) REGION IV

(B) REGION III

EOR-Chapter 2

109

Flow Regimes in Miscible Displacement

EOR-Chapter 2

110

Volumetric Efficiency

Methods of estimating volumetric displacement

efficiency in a 3D reservoir fall into two
classifications.
Direct application of 3D models

Physical
mathematical

Layered reservoir model.

The reservoir is divided into a number of no communicating

layers.
Displacement performance is calculated in each layer with
correlations of 2D.
Performance in individual layers are summed to obtain
volumetric efficiency
EOR-Chapter 2

111

Volumetric Displacement Efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

112

Calculation of volumetric sweep with

Numerical Simulators

EOR-Chapter 2

113

EOR-Chapter 2

114

Action on Sweep & Displacement Efficiency

By increasing water
viscosity
Action on Sweep
Efficiency at the
Macroscopic
Scale

Action on
Displacement
Efficiency at the
Microscopic/Pore
Scale

Polymer
flooding
Steam drive

By decreasing the oil

viscosity
By using a
miscible
displacing fluid
By reducing
the interfacial
tension
By action on
the rock
wettability

In-situ
combustion
Carbon dioxide
drive
Miscible
hydrocarbon gas
flooding
Surfactant
flooding
Alkaline
flooding