IMMUNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Measles, symptoms (rash

and fever) appear after 814 days of infection
In most cases, anyone
surviving this disease will
never suffer from it again
IMMUNE
Why? while suffering,
our body has developed
defence mechanism
immune system

INTRODUCTION: Diseases

Health can be defined as a persons physical,

mental and social condition. Good health
means good physical, mental and social
condition
Disease is a disorder or malfunction of the
mind or body, which destroys good health.
Infectious diseases (caused by pathogens) and
non infectious diseases (physical, nutrition,
inherited, mental etc.)

INTRODUCTION: Infectious Diseases

Pathogens are organisms living in or on our

bodies, causing disease such as viruses,
bacteria, fungi, protoctists, worms and
insects, which can be transmitted from person
to person.
Carriers are people who can transmit the
pathogen but do not have the disease
symptoms.

PROTIST

WORMS
VIRUS

BACTERIA

Defences against Diseases

Physical (skin), Chemical (exp: HCl in

Stomach) and Cellular (exp: Blood cells)
defence mechanisms
Immune System is made up of cells that
work with the bodys physical and chemical
barriers. It helps prevent any pathogen
(disease-causing organism) entering your
body, and becoming infected

Immune response

On the surface of all cells are chemical

markers (for example, proteins) called
antigens.
Your body recognises the antigens on your
cells as your own (self); anything with
different antigens to you (non-self) stimulates
an immune response.
Pathogens may induce our immune system
through pathogens antigens

First Line of Defence

Non specific responses: the same responses

for any pathogens
Physical bariers e.g. Skin, Nose, throat and
digestive tract
Chemical bariers e.g. Eyes: tears, Ear: wax,
Stomach: HCl, Sweat: acidic liquid

2nd Line of Defence

Non specific responses

It is a 3-Steps attack on any microbes that
have survived the first line of defence
1. Inflammation
2. Phagocytes
3. Macrophage and Interferon

2nd Line of Defence : 1. Inflammation

It happens because cells damaged by
invading pathogens and particular white
blood cells release alarm chemicals which
makes blood vessels enlarge (vasodilate) and
the capillaries more leaky, and thus:
1. >> blood (>> White Blood Cells) in site of
infection
2. WBCs let out into affected tissue, >> Blood =
red, swollen,
swollen hot, painful

2nd Line of Defence : 2. Phagocytes

Inflammation attracts WBCs to the area.

Neutrophils and macrophages are WBCs
which are able to engulf and digest offending
pathogens, and thus also called phagocytes
Phagocytes are produced and stored in the
bone marrow (scavenger, removing any dead
cells & invasive phatogens)

2nd Line of Defence : 2. Phagocytes

Neutrophils are form about 60 % of WBCs,

function to patrol the tissue through capillaries and
released during infection (short-lived cells)
Neutrophils destroy pathogens by phagocytosis.
Infected cells as well as pathogens can release
chemicals which attract passing neutrophils to the
site (such as Histamin by the infected cells)
Dead neutrophils often collect in the site of
infection to form Pus

Phagocytosis

Attraction (chemotaxis)
Recognition: direct attachment or
through antibody receptors (surface
of neutrophils membrane) for
marked pathogens (marked by
antibodies)
Engulfing (endocytosis) forming
phagocytic vacuole
Digesting by fusion of phagocytic
vacuole with lisosome (contain
hydrolytic enzymes) Killing
pathogens

Neutrophils attack the pathogens in this way

2nd Line of Defence : 3. Macrophages

and Interferon

Other than direct hand-to-hand combat, some

killing is done at a distance macrophages
Macrophages : phagocytes, larger than
neutrophils, rather than remaining in the blood
(as monocytes), they tend to be found in organs
e.g. lungs, liver, spleen, kidney and lymph
(macrophages)
Long-lived cells, initiating immune respones

2nd Line of Defence : 3. Macrophages

and Interferon

Macrophages make proteins that act in two

ways:
They can punch holes in the bacteria and parasites
so that they die.
Or the proteins can stick to the outside of the
bacteria to make them more appealing (display its
antigens) for the phagocytes to eat!
Interferon is chemicals made by infected cells to
ultimately prevents that cell from making molecules
that the pathogen would need to survive.

2nd Line of Defence : Weaknesses

It cant deal completely with any one
particular micro-organism (some pathogens
will nearly always survive this attack).
It can not remember past infections.
This is why a 3rd line of defence is needed

3rd Line of Defence: Lymphocytes

Depend on Lymphocytes, made in bone marrow

2 Basic Types of lymphocytes (your level):
1. B cells ( B Bone marrow), migrate to and then
mature in either the bone marrow or in the foetal
liver or spleen
2. T cells (T Thymus), mature after migrated
from the bone marrow to the thymus gland
Once mature, they patrol around the blood and
body, hunting for foreign antigens.

3rd Line of Defence: Lymphocytes

2 Kind of immune response:

B cells are involved in the humoral response

T cells are involved in the cell-mediated response

Only mature lymphocytes can carry out immune
response. The maturation of lymphocytes is a
development process of many different types of Band T- which is specialized to respond to specific
and only one antigen

Humoral immune response

it involves substances found in the humours,

or body fluids
The principal function of B cells in the
humoral immune response is to make
antibodies against soluble antigens
Matured B-cell has a unique receptor protein
on the plasma membrane referred as B-Cell
Receptor (BCR) that will bind to one
particular antigen

Humoral immune response

When pathogen invades our body, some of

them will be taken up by the marophages to
make it more appeal for the appropriate
B-lymphocytes
Once BCR bound to this antigen, the
development of B-lymphocytes begins as
follow:...

Humoral immune response

1. the selected B-cell divide by mitosis
2. some daughter cells develop into plasma cells
others into memory cells
3. plasma cell has main function to secrete
antibodies molecules. They are sometimes referred
to as antibody factories.
4. memory cells are able to live for a long time, and
can respond quickly following a second exposure to
the same antigen.

Antibodies

Immunoglobulins
Specificity for certain
antigens depend on the
variability of amino
acids sequences
forming the variable
region
Antibodies class.: see
p. 187 (Cambridge
A/AS Level)

Antibodies

This antibodies action means that:

1. The pathogens clumping together make them more
vulnerable to phagocytes and reducing the spread throughout
the body.
2. The antibody tags the bacteria when it is stuck to it,
making it more easily recognisable to phagocytes.
3. Together with other molecules, some antibodies punch
holes in the cell walls of pathogen causing cell lyses
4. Any antigens acting as toxins in your body are neutralised
when the antibody sticks to it, i. e antibodies can act as
antitoxins. In a similar way, if a virus has an antibody
attached to it, it will no longer be able to attach or enter a host
cell.

Infeksi 1st Defence survive 2nd

Inflamation Phagocytes (Neutrophils) survive
macrophages tagging (marker) Phagocytes
(Neut.) survive/ unrecognisable 3rd defence
humoral immune response BCR (marker) (primary
response) & Memory cell (secondary response)
killed antibodies survive/unrecognisable cell
mediated immune response

Cell-mediated Immune Response

T-cell posses special receptor on their cell surface called

the T cell receptor (TCR) which has a similar structure to
atibodies and specific to 1 antigen.
T cells are activated when they meet antigen in contact
with another host cell, for example:
a. exposed antigen by macrophages
b. help signal on the plasma membrane of pathogen
invaded body cells
If an antigen is presented to a T cell with a complementary
shaped receptor, the T cell is stimulated, increases in size
and starts to divide (activation T-cell differentiation).

Cell-mediated Immune Response

T cells differentiation
forming 4 groups of
specialised T cells:
Killer T cells
Helper T cells
Suppressor T cells
Memory cells

Cell-mediated Immune Response

Helper T cells: cooperate with B cells in

antibody production by
producing cytokines
that help B-cell to
develop into plasma
cell. They also activate
macrophages (also by
cytokines) and promote
inflammation.

Cell-mediated Immune Response

Killer T cells: combine with the antigens on the surface of

any invading cell and release a powerful group of chemicals
called lymphokines. Some lymphokines kill the pathogens as
well as its host cell directly, others stimulate other
lymphocytes to become active, and still others increase the
inflammation so that there are more macrophages.
Suppressor T cells: keep the immune system in check so that
once the antigens have been dealt with, the system is
switched off
Memory T cells: remain after the pathogens have been killed
to stop re-infection and activate immune system very quickly
in the secondary response

3rd Line of Defence: Lymphocytes

Typical recognition markers for lymphocytes
LYMPHOCYTE
CLASS

FUNCTION OF LYMPHOCYTE

PROPORTION

PHENOTYPIC
MARKER(S)

NK cells

Lysis of virally infected cells and

tumour cells

7% (2-13%)

CD16 CD56 but not

CD3

Helper T cells

Release cytokines and growth factors

that regulate other immune cells

46% (28-59%)

TCR, CD3 and CD4

Cytotoxic
T cells

Lysis of virally infected cells, tumour

cells and allografts

19% (13-32%)

TCR, CD3 and CD8

T cells

Immunoregulation and cytotoxicity

B cells

Secretion of antibodies

TCR and CD3

23% (18-47%)

MHC class II, CD19

and CD21

Memory of our immune system

although the first infection was dealt with in a few

days to a few weeks by the primary response, the
secondary response to re-infection is much quicker
and much more powerful.
Because of this clever system, even if you are reinfected, you may not even know about it because no
symptoms show! The infecting organism does not
have the chance to cause disease. This is why many
diseases can only infect you once.

Memory of our immune system

This is not infallible though. There are some

diseases that come in a variety of guises, for
example the common cold and influenza (flu).
Although each time you get a cold you have a
similar set of symptoms, each new cold is in
fact caused by a slightly different virus with
slightly different antigens (high rate of
mutation in some microorganisms).

Active Immunity

Active Immunity occurs naturally during an infection:

natural active immunity (activation by infection)
artificial active immunity (artificially activated, exp:
vaccination)
Vaccine small quantities of the antigen attached to the
offending organism.
To reduce the risk involved when taking the vaccine, the
disease itself may have been artificially weakened by
taking the disease cell and altering it (as in polio, smallpox
and measles vaccines), killing it (as in whooping cough and
typhoid vaccines), or by using altered toxins (as in the
tetanus vaccine).

Passive Immunity

Passive Immunity no activation process,

immunity process does not develop by its own
body but it is given and thus, short term immunity
natural passive immunity (exp: immune system
of newborn infants (from their mother),
Colostrums)
artificial passive immunity (An injection of
antitoxin during treatment of tetanus which contains
human antibodies taken from blood donors who have
recently been vaccinated against tetanus).