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Frequencies
Signals
Antenna
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
coax cable
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
VLF
LF
optical transmission
100 m
3 MHz
MF
HF
1m
300 MHz
VHF
UHF
10 mm
30 GHz
SHF
100 m
3 THz
EHF
infrared
1 m
300 THz
visible light UV
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f
Signals I
1
g (t ) c an sin( 2nft ) bn cos(2nft )
2
n 1
n 1
0
t
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Signals II
A [V]
A [V]
t[s]
I= M cos
f [Hz]
z
y
x
ideal
isotropic
radiator
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4
/2
y
x
z
z
simple
dipole
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
Antennas: diversity
Antenna diversity
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/4
/2
+
ground plane
/4
/2
/2
/2
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise
sender
transmission
distance
detection
interference
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
shadowing
reflection
refraction
scattering
diffraction
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
power
long term
fading
Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (si)
channels ki
k1
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
t
c
t
s1
s2
t
s3
Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
works also for analog signals
k6
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
t
Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
t
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
c
f
Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
digital
data
101101001
digital
modulation
analog
baseband
signal
analog
modulation
radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
demodulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
synchronization
decision
digital
data
101101001
radio receiver
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
1
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference
more complex
robust against interference
Example of MSK
1
0
bit
data
even
0101
even bits
odd
0011
odd bits
signal
value
hnnh
- - ++
low
frequency
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency
MSK
signal
t
No phase shifts!
10
11
00
01
t
11
10
00
01
0001
0000
I
1000
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
10
I
00
000010
010101
power
interference
spread
signal
power
signal
detection at
receiver
protection against narrowband interference
f
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
spread
interference
f
dP/df
i)
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
ii)
f
sender
dP/df
dP/df
dP/df
iii)
iv)
f
receiver
v)
f
narrowband channels
4
frequency
narrow band
signal
guard space
channel
quality
spread
spectrum
frequency
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks
tb
user data
0
1
tc
chipping
sequence
01101010110101
Disadvantages
XOR
=
resulting
signal
01101011001010
user data
X
chipping
sequence
transmit
signal
modulator
radio
carrier
transmitter
correlator
received
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier
lowpass
filtered
signal
chipping
sequence
receiver
products
X
integrator
sampled
sums
decision
data
Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect
td
f3
slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f2
f1
f
td
f3
fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f2
f1
t
user data
modulator
modulator
frequency
synthesizer
transmitter
received
signal
hopping
sequenc
e
spread
transmit
signal
narrowband
signal
demodulator
frequency
synthesizer
hopping
sequenc
e
data
demodulator
receiver
Physical layer
Holger Karl
Receiver: Demodulation
The receiver looks at the received wave form and matches it with the data
bit that caused the transmitter to generate this wave form
Necessary: one-to-one mapping between data and wave form
Because of channel imperfections, this is at best possible for digital
signals, but not for analog signals
Problems caused by
Carrier synchronization: frequency can vary between sender and receiver
(drift, temperature changes, aging, )
Bit synchronization (actually: symbol synchronization): When does symbol
representing a certain bit start/end?
Frame synchronization: When does a packet start/end?
Biggest problem: Received signal is not the transmitted signal!
SINR allows to compute bit error rate (BER) for a given modulation
Also depends on data rate (# bits/symbol) of modulation
E.g., for simple DPSK, data rate corresponding to bandwidth:
0.1
0.01
0.001
BER
0.0001
1e-05
1e-06
1e-07
-10
-5
10
15
SINR
Signal models
One dominant line-of-sight plus many indirect paths: Signal has a Rice
distribution (Rice fading)
Each bit is erroneous with constant probability, independent of the other bits
binary symmetric channel (BSC)
Example: Gilbert-Elliot model with bad and good channel states and high/low
bit error rates
good
bad
Coherence bandwidth
often > 50 MHz
Some example
measurements
path loss exponent
Shadowing variance 2
Reference path
loss at 1 m
Diversity, equalization,
Choice of modulation
One exemplary design point: which modulation to use?
Consider: required data rate, available symbol rate, implementation
complexity, required BER, channel characteristics,
Tradeoffs: the faster one sends, the longer one can sleep
Summary
Wireless radio communication introduces many uncertainties and
vagaries into a communication system
Handling the unavoidable errors will be a major challenge for the
communication protocols
Dealing with limited bandwidth in an energy-efficient manner is the main
challenge
MANET and WSN are pretty similar here
Wireless Communications
Partition losses
Partition losses
Partition losses
Wireless Communications
Rayleigh fading
Wireless Communications
Amplitude Modulation
SSB Modulators
Product Detection
VCO circuit
Wideband FM generation
FM Demod circuit
Gaussian pulse-shapes
BPSK constellation
DPSK modulation
DPSK receiver
QPSK modulation
QPSK receiver
IF Differential Detection
FM Discriminator detector
Noncoherent FSK
MSK modulation
MSK reception
GMSK Demodulator
QAM efficiencies
PN Sequence Generator
Effects of Fading
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For SNR of 0, 10, 20, 30 dB, one can achieve C/B of 1, 3.46, 6.66,
9.97 bps/Hz, respectively
Example:
Consider the operation of a modem on an ordinary telephone line.
The SNR is usually about 1000. The bandwidth is 3.4 KHz. Therefore:
140
14
versa.
141
14
Thermal Noise
Thermal Noise
white noise since it contains the same level of power at all frequencies
kTB, where
k is the Boltzmanns constant = 1.381e-21 W / K / Hz,
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin, and
B is the bandwidth.
174 dBm/Hz
142
14
Receiver Sensitivity
SNR depends on
Received signal power
Background thermal noise at antenna (Na)
Noise added by the receiver (Nr)
143
14
Noise Figure
144
14
Symbol rate
868 MHz band: 20 kbps (1bit/symbol, 20 Kbaud)
915 MHz band: 40 kbps (1bit/symbol, 40 Kbaud)
Spreading code is 15-chip
Data modulation is BPSK
868 MHz: 300 Kchips/s
915 MHz: 600 Kchips/s
145
14
Transmit power
40 ppm
Receiver Selectivity
915 MHz and 2.4 GHz band: 0 dB rejection of interference from adjacent channel
30 dB rejection of interference from alternate channel
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