Quantitative Analysis

for Research
Muhammad Zaki Rashidi

Sampling Methods
Lecture Week 5

Overview
Sampling techniques
Determination of sample size
Probability sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling

Non-probability sampling
Quota, judgment, convenience sampling
Snowball sampling

Errors in sampling
Table of sample size
3

Basics of sampling I
A sample is a

Samples offer many benefits:

part of a whole Save costs: Less expensive to study the
sample than the population.
to show what the
Save time: Less time needed to study the
rest is like.
sample than the population .
Sampling helps to
Accuracy: Since sampling is done with
determine the
care and studies are conducted by
corresponding
skilled and qualified interviewers, the
value of the
results are expected to be accurate.
population and
Destructive nature of elements: For
plays a vital role
some elements, sampling is the way to
in marketing
test, since tests destroy the element itself.
research.

Basics of sampling II
Limitations of
Sampling
Demands more rigid

control in undertaking
sample operation.
Minority and smallness in
number of sub-groups
often render study to be
suspected.
Accuracy level may be
affected when data is
subjected to weighing.
Sample results are good
approximations at best.

Sampling Process
Defining the
population

Specifying
Sample
Method

Developing
a sampling
Frame

Determining
Sample
Size

SELECTING THE SAMPLE

Sampling: Step 1
Defining the Universe
Universe or population is the

whole mass under study.

How to define a universe:
What constitutes the units of

analysis (HDB apartments)?

What are the sampling units
(HDB apartments occupied in
the last three months)?
What is the specific designation
of the units to be covered (HDB
in town area)?
What time period does the data
refer to (December 31, 1995)

Sampling: Step 2
Establishing the Sampling
Frame
A sample frame is the list of

all elements in the

population (such as
telephone directories,
electoral registers, club
membership etc.) from
which the samples are
drawn.

A sample frame which does

not fully represent an intended

population will result in frame
error and affect the degree of
reliability of sample result.

Step - 3
Determination of Sample Size
Sample size may be determined by using:
Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of population
Conventional approach: eg. Average of sample sizes of similar

other studies;
Cost basis approach: The number that can be studied with the
available funds;

Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)

Confidence interval approach.

Conventional approach of Sample size determination using

Sample sizes used in different marketing research studies

TYPE OF STUDY
Identifying a problem (e.g.market
segmentation)
Problem-solving (e.g., promotion)
Product tests
Advertising (TV, Radio, or print Media
per commercial or ad tested)
Test marketing
Test market audits
Focus groups

MINIMUM
SIZE

TYPICAL
RANGE

500
200
200

1000-2500
300-500
300-500

150
200
10
stores/outlets
2 groups

200-300
300-500
10-20
stores/outlets
4-12 groups

Sample size determination using statistical formulae:

The confidence interval approach
To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers

use the confidence interval approach based on the following

factors:
Desired level of data precision or accuracy;
Amount of variability in the population (homogeneity);
Level of confidence required in the estimates of population values.

Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time

may prompt the researcher to modify the computed sample size.

Students are encouraged to consult any standard marketing
research textbook to have an understanding of these formulae.

Step 4:
Specifying the sampling method
Probability Sampling
Every element in the target population or universe

[sampling frame] has equal probability of being chosen in

the sample for the survey being conducted.
Scientific, operationally convenient and simple in theory.
Results may be generalized.

Non-Probability Sampling
Every element in the universe [sampling frame] does not

have equal probability of being chosen in the sample.

Operationally convenient and simple in theory.
Results may not be generalized.

Probability sampling
Four types of probability
sampling

Appropriate for

homogeneous population
Simple random sampling
Requires the use of a random

number table.
Systematic sampling
Requires the sample frame

only,
No random number table is
necessary

Appropriate for

heterogeneous
population
Stratified sampling
Use of random number

table may be necessary

Cluster sampling
Use of random number

table may be necessary

Non-probability sampling
Four types of non-probability sampling

techniques

Very simple types, based on subjective criteria

Convenient sampling
Judgmental sampling
More systematic and formal

Quota sampling
Special type

Snowball Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

1 2

Also called

random sampling
Simplest method
of probability
sampling

Need to use
Random
Number Table

3 4 5

7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1
2
3
4
5

37
50
99
70
18

75
91
14
72
46

10
56
23
01
06

49
41
50
00
49

98
52
21
33
47

66
82
01
25
32

03 86 34 80 98 44 22 22
98 11 57 96 27 10 27 16
03 25 79 07 80 54 55 41
19 16 23 58 03 78 47 43
58 08 75 29 63 66 89 09

45
35
12
77
22

83
34
15
88
35

53
47
15
15
97

86
01
03
02
74

23
36
68
55
30

51
08
56
67
80

6
7
8
9
10

65
83
58
54
56

76
76
90
74
81

34
95
07
67
92

11
25
84
11
73

33
70
20
15
40

60
60
98
78
07

95
13
57
21
20

51
82
42
02
59

78
84
46
54
15

76
99
34
51
46

45
02
61
78
09

26
64
44
76
75

45
00
01
76
64

11
12
13
14
15

34
02
43
92
67

99
26
04
56
42

06
92
25
51
43

21
27
36
22
26

22
95
00
11
20

38 22 32 85 26 37 00 62 27 74 46 02 61 59 81
87 59 38 18 30 95 38 36 78 23 20 19 65 48 50
45 73 80 02 61 31 10 06 72 39 02 00 47 06 98
06 86 88 77 86 59 57 66 13 82 33 97 21 31 61
60 84 18 68 48 85 00 00 48 35 48 57 63 38 84

03
32
93
96
05

53
52
36
43
26

72
11
65
14
63

06
87
10
11
57

78
38
71
22
86

28
49
83
74
48

14
01
93
17
51

How to Use Random Number Tables

________________________________________________
1. Assign a unique number to each population element in the
sampling frame. Start with serial number 1, or 01, or 001,
etc. upwards depending on the number of digits required.
2. Choose a random starting position.
3. Select serial numbers systematically across rows or down
columns.
4. Discard numbers that are not assigned to any population
element and ignore numbers that have already been
selected.
5. Repeat the selection process until the required number of
sample elements is selected.

How to Use a Table of Random Numbers to Select a Sample

Your marketing research lecturer wants to randomly select 20 students from
your class of 100 students. Here is how he can do it using a random number table.

Step 1: Assign all the 100 members of the population a unique number.You may
identify each element by assigning a two-digit number. Assign 01 to the first name
on the list, and 00 to the last name. If this is done, then the task of selecting the
sample will be easier as you would be able to use a 2-digit random number table.
NAME

Adam, Tan

Carrol, Chan
.
Jerry Lewis
.
Lim Chin Nam
.
Singh, Arun

NUMBER

01
08

18

26

30

NAME

Tan Teck Wah

Tay Thiam Soon

..
Teo Tai Meng
.

Yeo Teck Lan

Zailani bt Samat

NUMBER

42

61

87

99
00

How to use random number table to select a random sample

Step 2: Select any starting point in the Random Number Table and find the first number that
corresponds to a number on the list of your population. In the example below, # 08 has been
chosen as the starting point and the first student chosen is Carol Chan.
Starting point:
move right to the end
of the row, then down
to the next row row;
move left to the end,
then down to the next
row, and so on.

10 09 73 25 33 76
37 54 20 48 05 64
08 42 26 89 53 19
90 01 90 25 29 09
12 80 79 99 70 80
66 06 57 47 17 34
31 06 01 08 05 45
Step 3: Move to the next number, 42 and select the person corresponding to that number into
the sample. #87 Tan Teck Wah
Step 4: Continue to the next number that qualifies and select that person into the sample.
# 26 -- Jerry Lewis, followed by #89, #53 and #19
Step 5: After you have selected the student # 19, go to the next line and choose #90. Continue
in the same manner until the full sample is selected. If you encounter a number selected
earlier (e.g., 90, 06 in this example) simply skip over it and choose the next number.

Systematic sampling
Very similar to simple random sampling with one exception.
In systematic sampling only one random number is needed throughout the
entire sampling process.
To use systematic sampling, a researcher needs:
[i] a sampling frame of the population; and is needed.
[ii] a skip interval calculated as follows:
Skip interval = population list size
Sample size
Names are selected using the skip interval.
If a researcher were to select a sample of 1000 people using the local telephone
directory containing 215,000 listings as the sampling frame, skip interval is
[215,000/1000], or 215. The researcher can select every 215 th name of the entire
directory [sampling frame], and select his sample.

Example: How to Take a Systematic Sample

Step 1: Select a listing of the population, say the City Telephone Directory, from which to
sample. Remember that the list will have an acceptable level of sample frame error.
Step 2: Compute the skip interval by dividing the number of entries in the directory by the
desired sample size.
Example: 250,000 names in the phone book, desired a sample size of 2500,
So skip interval = every 100th name
Step 3: Using random number(s), determine a starting position for sampling the list.
Example: Select: Random number for page number. (page 01)
Select: Random number of column on that page. (col. 03)
Select: Random number for name position in that column (#38, say, A..Mahadeva)
Step 4: Apply the skip interval to determine which names on the list will be in the sample.
Example: A. Mahadeva (Skip 100 names), new name chosen is A Rahman b Ahmad.
Step 5: Consider the list as circular; that is, the first name on the list is now the initial name
you selected, and the last name is now the name just prior to the initially selected one.
Example: When you come to the end of the phone book names (Zs), just continue on
through the beginning (As).

Stratified sampling I
A three-stage process:

Stratified samples can be:

Step 1- Divide the population into

Proportionate: involving the

homogeneous, mutually exclusive

and collectively exhaustive
subgroups or strata using some
stratification variable;
Step 2- Select an independent
simple random sample from each
stratum.
Step 3- Form the final sample by
consolidating all sample elements
chosen in step 2.
May yield smaller standard errors of

estimators than does the simple

random sampling. Thus precision can
be gained with smaller sample sizes.

selection of sample elements

from each stratum, such
that the ratio of sample
elements from each stratum
to the sample size equals
that of the population
elements within each
stratum to the total number
of population elements.
Disproportionate: the
sample is disproportionate
when the above mentioned
ratio is unequal.

Selection of a proportionate Stratified Sample

To select a proportionate stratified sample of 20 members of the Island Video Club which has
100 members belonging to three language based groups of viewers i.e., English (E), Mandarin
(M) and Others (X).
Step 1: Identify each member from the membership list by his or her respective language groups
00 (E )
01 (E )
02 ( X )
03 (E )
04 (E )
05 (E )
06 (M)
07 (M)
08 (E )
09 (E )
10 (M)
11 (E )
12 ( X )
13 (M)
14 (E )
15 (M)
16 (E )
17 ( X )
18 ( X )
19 (M)

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

(M)
(X)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(X)

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

(E )
(X)
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(X)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(M)

60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79

(X)
(M)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(M)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(M)
(E )

80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99

(M)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )

Selection of a proportionate stratified sample II

Step 2: Sub-divide the club members into three homogeneous sub-groups or strata by the
language groups: English, Mandarin and others.
EnglishLanguage
Stratum
00 22 40 64 82
01 24 43 67 85
03 26 45 69 86
04 29 48 70 89
05 30 49 71 91
08 31 50 73 93
09 32 54 75 94
11 34 55 76 96
14 36 57 79 97
16 37 63 81 99

Mandarin Language
Stratum
06 35 66
07 44 68
10 47 72
13 51 77
15 53 78
19 56 80
20 58 83
25 59 87
27 61 92
33 62 98

Other Language
Stratum
.
02 42
12 46
17 52
18 60
21 65
23 74
28 84
38 88
39 90
41 95

1. Calculate the overall sampling fraction, f, in the following manner:

f = n = 20 = 1 =
N 100
5

0.2

where n = sample size and N = population size

Selection of a proportionate stratified sample III

Determine the number of sample elements (n1) to be selected from the English
language stratum. In this example, n1 = 50 x f = 50 x 0.2 =10. By using a simple
random sampling method [using a random number table] members whose numbers
are 01, 03, 16, 30, 43, 48, 50, 54, 55, 75, are selected.
Next, determine the number of sample elements (n2) from the Mandarin language
stratum. In this example, n2 = 30 x f = 30 X 0.2 = 6. By using a simple random
sampling method as before, members having numbers 10,15, 27, 51, 59, 87 are
selected from the Mandarin language stratum.
In the same manner, the number of sample elements (n3) from the Other language
stratum is calculated. In this example, n3 = 20 x f = 20 X 0.2 = 4. For this stratum,
members whose numbers are 17, 18, 28, 38 are selected
These three different sets of numbers are now aggregated to obtain the ultimate
stratified sample as shown below.
S = (01, 03, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 27, 28, 30, 38, 43, 48, 50, 51, 54, 55, 59, 75, 87)

Cluster sampling
Is a type of sampling in which clusters or groups of

elements are sampled at the same time.

Such a procedure is economic, and it retains the
characteristics of probability sampling.
A two-step-process:
Step 1- Defined population is divided into number of mutually

exclusive and collectively exhaustive subgroups or clusters;

Step 2- Select an independent simple random sample of
clusters.
One special type of cluster sampling is called area sampling, where
pieces of geographical areas are selected.

Example : One-stage and two-stage Cluster sampling

Consider the same Island Video Club example involving 100 club members:
Step 1: Sub-divide the club members into 5 clusters, each cluster containing 20 members.
Cluster
No.
1
2
3
4
5

English
00, 22, 40, 64, 82
01, 24, 43, 67, 85
03, 26, 45, 69, 86
04, 29, 48, 70, 89
05, 30, 49, 71, 91
08, 31, 50, 73, 93
09, 32, 54, 75, 94
11, 34, 55, 76, 96
14, 36, 57, 79, 97
16, 37, 63, 81, 99

Mandarin
06, 35, 66
07, 44, 68
10, 47, 72
13, 51, 77
15, 53, 78
19, 56, 80
20, 58, 83
25, 59, 87
27, 61, 92
33, 62, 98

Others
02, 42
12, 46
17, 52
18, 60
21, 65
23, 74
28, 84
38, 88
39, 90
41, 95

Step 2: Select one of the 5 clusters. If cluster 4 is selected, then all its elements (i.e. Club
Members with numbers 09, 11, 32, 34, 54, 55, 75, 76, 94, 96, 20, 25, 58, 59, 83, 87, 28, 38, 84,
88) are selected.
Step 3: If a two-stage cluster sampling is desired, the researcher may randomly select 4 members
from each of the five clusters. In this case, the sample will be different from that shown in step 2
above.

Stratified Sampling vs Cluster Sampling

Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
1. The target population is sub-divided
1. The target population is subinto a few subgroups or strata, each
divided into a large number of
containing a large number of elements.
sub-population or clusters, each
containing a few elements.
2. Within each stratum, the elements are 2. Within each cluster, the elements
homogeneous. However, high degree of
are heterogeneous. Between
heterogeneity exists between strata.
clusters, there is a high degree of
homogeneity.
3. A sample element is selected each time. 3. A cluster is selected each time.
4. Less sampling error.
4. More prone to sampling error.
5. Objective is to increase precision.
5. Objective is to increase sampling
efficiency by decreasing cost.

AREA SAMPLING
A common form of cluster sampling where clusters consist of geographic areas, such as
districts, housing blocks or townships. Area sampling could be one-stage, two-stage, or
multi-stage.
How to Take an Area Sample Using Subdivisions
Your company wants to conduct a survey on the expected patronage of its new outlet in a new
housing estate. The company wants to use area sampling to select the sample households to be
interviewed. The sample may be drawn in the manner outlined below.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Step 1: Determine the geographic area to be surveyed, and identify its subdivisions. Each
subdivision cluster should be highly similar to all others. For example, choose ten housing
blocks within 2 kilometers of the proposed site [say, Model Town ] for your new retail outlet;
assign each a number.
Step 2: Decide on the use of one-step or two-step cluster sampling. Assume that you decide to
use a two-stage cluster sampling.
Step 3: Using random numbers, select the housing blocks to be sampled. Here, you select 4
blocks randomly, say numbers #102, #104, #106, and #108.
Step 4: Using some probability method of sample selection, select the households in each of the
chosen housing block to be included in the sample. Identify a random starting point (say,
apartment no. 103), instruct field workers to drop off the survey at every fifth house
(systematic sampling).

Non-probability samples
Convenience sampling
Drawn at the convenience of the researcher. Common in exploratory
research. Does not lead to any conclusion.
Judgmental sampling
Sampling based on some judgment, gut-feelings or experience of the
researcher. Common in commercial marketing research projects. If
inference drawing is not necessary, these samples are quite useful.
Quota sampling
An extension of judgmental sampling. It is something like a two-stage
judgmental sampling. Quite difficult to draw.
Snowball sampling
Used in studies involving respondents who are rare to find. To start with, the
researcher compiles a short list of sample units from various sources. Each
of these respondents are contacted to provide names of other probable
respondents.

Quota Sampling
To select a quota sample comprising 3000 persons in country X using three control
characteristics: sex, age and level of education.
Here, the three control characteristics are considered independently of one another.
In order to calculate the desired number of sample elements possessing the various
attributes of the specified control characteristics, the distribution pattern of the
general population in country X in terms of each control characteristics is examined.
Control
Characteristics

Population

Distribution

Sample Elements

Gender: ....
.................

Male......................
Female ..................

50.7%
49.3%

Male
Female

3000 x 50.7% = 1521

3000 x 49.3% = 1479

Age: .........
.................
.................

20-29 years ...........

30-39 years ...........
40 years & over ....

13.4%
53.3%
33.3%

20-29 years
30-39 years
40 years & over

3000 x 13.4% = 402

3000 x 52.3% = 1569
3000 x 34.3% = 1029

Religion: ..
Christianity ...........
76.4%
Christianity
3000 x 76.4% = 2292
.................
Islam .....................
14.8%
Islam
3000 x 14.8% = 444
.................
Hinduism ..............
6.6%
Hinduism
3000 x 6.6% = 198
.................
Others ...................
2.2%
Others
3000 x 2.2% = 66
_________________________________________________________________________________
_

Sampling vs non-sampling errors

Sampling Error [SE]

Non-sampling Error [NSE]

Very small sample Size

Larger sample size
Still larger sample
Complete census

Choosing probability vs. non-probability sampling

Probability
sampling
Conclusive

Evaluation Criteria
Nature of research

Non-probability
sampling
Exploratory

Relative magnitude
sampling vs.
non-sampling error

Larger non-sampling
error

High
[Heterogeneous]

Population variability

Low
[Homogeneous]

Favorable

Statistical Considerations

Unfavorable

High

Sophistication Needed

Low

Relatively Longer
shorter

Time

High

Budget Needed

Larger sampling
errors

Relatively
Low

Choice of Sample Size Large Populations

Sample Sizes

Table 1

% Margin of Error

95% Confidence

99% Confidence

9,604

16,590

2,401

4,148

1,068

1,844

601

1,037

385

664

267

461

196

339

151

260

119

250

10

97

166

Source :Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research

Choice of Sample Size - Small

Populations
Sample Sizes
Table 2
N

95% Level of Confidence

3%

5%

10%

99% Level of Confidence

3%

5%

10%

500

250

218

81

250

250

124

1000

500

278

88

500

399

143

1500

624

306

91

750

460

150

2,000

696

323

92

959

498

154

3,000

788

341

94

1,142

544

158

5,000

880

357

95

1,347

586

161

10,000

965

370

96

1,556

622

164

20,000

1,014

377

96

1,687

642

165

50,000

1,045

382

96

1,777

655

166

100,000

1,058

383

96

1,809

659

166

Source : Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research