1.0 Fundamentals of Casting

1.
Fundamentals of Metal Casting
MANUFACTURIN
G PROCESSES
BFF 2423
CASTING
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
1.0
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction
Solidification of Metals
Fluid Flow
Fluidity of Molten Metal
Heat Transfer
Defects
1.0
What is Metal Casting ?

It is defined as the process of producing a
metallic component by pouring and
allowing the liquid (metal or alloy) to
solidify in side a mold cavity of predesigned shape.
1.0
Terminology !!
Do not confuse
Casting (Verb): Process
Casting (noun) : Component
Casting process
made by
1.0
Introduction
Casting is one of the most versatile

manufacturing processes
An ancient art with primitive skills
First metals cast were probably gold and
copper.
Cu melts at 1084 C
Gold melts at 1064 C
Egyptians were expert at investing or

lost wax casting
Allowed small intricate shapes to be cast.
Bronze casting
Made when people realized that copper tin alloys cast

much easier than copper alone.
Bronze casting of bells became important
1.0
What is casting??
One of the oldest processes
a) Melt metal/ alloy
b) pouring molten metal
into a mold cavity
c) Solidification (by
cooling the melt in the
mold)
d) remove the cast
component (also called
as casting) from the
mold
e) Finishing
1.0
Advantages of Casting
Low cost and quick

Easier to manufacture
Can produce parts in one piece
Best suited for composite components
Can produce intricate shapes and internal
openings
Important Considerations
Flow of molten metal

Solidification and cooling
Type of mold material
1.0
Solidification of Metals
After molten metal is poured into a mold, a series of events takes place during the
solidification of the metal and its cooling to ambient temperature.
These events greatly influence the size, shape, uniformity, and chemical composition of
the grains formed throughout the casting, which in turn influence its overall properties.
1.0
Pure Metals
Temperature as a function of time

for the solidification
Density as a function of time
1.0
Pure Metals
After the temperature of the molten metal

drops to its freezing point, its temperature
remains constant while the latent heat of
fusion is given off.
At the mold walls, which are at ambient
temperature or at least are much cooler than
the molten metal, the metal cools rapidly and
produces a solidified skin or shell of fine
equiaxed grains.
1.0
Pure Metals
Pure metals
Solidsolution
alloys
Nucleating
agents
1.0
Alloys
Solidification in alloys begins when the

temperature drops below the liquidus, TL , and
is complete when it reaches the solidus, TS
Fig 10.4 shows the Schematic illustration of

alloy solidification and temperature distribution
in the solidifying metal.
Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy
zone.
1.0
Alloys
1.0
Alloys
Within this temperature range, the alloy is

in a mushy or pasty state consisting of
columnar dendrites.
The width of the mushy zone (where both
liquid and solid phases are present) is an
important factor during solidification.
This zone is described in terms of a
temperature difference, known as the
freezing range, as follows:
Freezing range TL TS
(10.1)
1.0
Alloys
For alloys, a short freezing range generally

involves a temperature difference of less than
50C, and a long freezing range greater than
110C.
Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites

reach each other, but the casting is still mushy
throughout. It takes about two hours for this
casting to solidify completely.
1.0
Alloys
Gray cast iron
Carbon steels
1.0
Alloys
Effects of Cooling Rates

Slow cooling rates course grain structures,
large spacing between dendrite arms.
Faster cooling rates finer grain structures.
Grain size influence the properties of the
casting.
As grain size decreases, the strength and the
ductility of the cast alloy increase, prevent hot
tearing and/or cracks.
1.0
Fluid Flow
Fig 10.8 shows the schematic illustration of

a typical riser-gate casting.
Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten
metal to the casting as it shrinks during
solidification.
1.0
Fluid Flow
Basic casting system:
Fluid is pored though a pouring basin
Flows though the gating system into the mold cavit
1. Sprue is a vertical channel
though which the molten metal
flows downward in the mold
2. Runners channels that carry the
molten metal from the sprue to the
mold cavity
3. Gate is the portion of the runner
which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity
4. Risers serve as reservoirs to
supply the molten metal
necessary to prevent shrinkage.
1.0
Fluid Flow
Two basic principles of fluid flow:

Bernoullis theorem
This theorem is based on the principle of the
conservation of energy and relates pressure,
velocity, the elevation of the fluid at any
location in the system, and the frictional
losses in a system that is full of liquid.
Mass Continuity
The law of mass continuity states that for
incompressible liquids and in a system with
impermeable walls the rate of flow is constant.
1.0
Fluid Flow
Flow Characteristics
Turbulence is an important consideration in gating

systems.
Reynolds Number is used to quantify this aspect
0 < Re < 2000 laminar flow
2000<Re<20,000 mixture of laminar & turbulent flow
Re > 20 000 => severe turbulence
Techniques for minimizing turbulence
Avoid sudden changes in flow direction
Dross or slag can be eliminated by vacuum casting
Use of filters eliminates turbulent flow in the runner
system
1.0
Fluidity of a Molten Metal
The capability of the molten metal to fill

mold cavities is called fluidity, which
consists of two basic factors: (1)
characteristics of the molten metal and (2)
casting parameters.
Molten Metal
1. Viscosity
As viscosity and its sensitivity to
temperature (viscosity index) increase,
fluidity decreases.
1.0
2. Surface Tension
A high surface tension of the liquid metal
reduces fluidity.
Because of this, oxide films on the surface
of the molten metal have a significant
adverse effect on fluidity.
1.0
3. Inclusions
Because they are insoluble, inclusions can
have a significant adverse effect on fluidity.
This effect can be verified by observing the
viscosity of a liquid (such as oil) with and
without sand particles in it; the liquid with
sand in it has a higher viscosity and, hence,
lower fluidity.
1.0
4. Solidifications pattern of alloy

The manner in which solidification takes
place can influence fluidity.
Moreover, fluidity is inversely proportional
to the freezing range.
The shorter the range (as in pure metals
and eutectics), the higher the fluidity.
1.0
Casting parameters
1. Mold Design
The design and dimensions of the spruce,
runners, and risers all influence fluidity.
2. Mold material and its surface
characteristics
Higher the thermal conductivity of the mold
and the rougher its surfaces, the lower the
fluidity of the molten metal.
Heating mold improves fluidity, but slows
down solidification process. Thus, develops
coarse grains and lower strength.
1.0
3. Degree of superheat
Superheat (defined as the increment of
temperature of an alloy above its melting point)
improves fluidity by delaying solidification.
The pouring temperature often is specified
instead of the degree of superheat, because it
is specified more easily.
4. Rate of pouring
The slower the rate of pouring molten metal
into the mold, the lower the fluidity because of
the higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.
1.0
5. Heat Transfer
This factor directly affects the viscosity of
the liquid metal.
1.0
Test for fluidity
The fluidity index is the length of the

solidified metal in the spiral passage. The
greater the length of the solidified metal,
the greater is its fluidity.
1.0
Heat Transfer
The heat transfer during the complete cycle

(from pouring, to solidification, and to
cooling to room temperature) is another
important consideration in metal casting.
1.0
Solidification time
During the early stages of solidification, a

thin, solidified skin begins to form at the
cool mold walls, and as time passes, the
thickness of the skin increases.
1.0
Solidification time
The solidification time is a function of the

volume of a casting and its surface area
(Chvorinovs rule):
Solidification time C
Volume
Surface area
10.7
where C is a constant that reflects (a) the

mold material, (b) the metal properties
(including latent heat), and (c) the
temperature.
The parameter n has a value between 1.5
and 2 but usually is taken as 2.
1.0
Shrinkage
Shrinkage, which causes dimensional

changes and (sometimes) cracking, is the
result of the following three sequential
events:
1. Contraction of the molten metal as it
cools prior to its solidification.
2. Contraction of the metal during phase
change from liquid to solid (latent heat of
fusion).
3. Contraction of the solidified metal (the
casting) as its temperature drops to
ambient temperature.
1.0
Shrinkage
The largest potential amount of

shrinkage occurs during the cooling of
the casting to ambient temperature.
The amount of contraction during the
solidification of various metals is shown
in Table 10.1.
1.0
Defects
hot tears in castings:

These defects occur because the casting
cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing
to constraints in various portions of the
molds and cores.
Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds
may be used (as exothermic padding) to
control cooling at critical sections to avoid
hot tearing.
1.0
Defects
1.0
Common Defects in Casting

These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and
preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures.
1.0
Defects
The International Committee of Foundry

Technical Associations has developed a
standardized nomenclature, consisting of
seven basic categories of casting defects
identified with boldface capital letters:
AMetallic projections
BCavities
CDiscontinuities
DDefective surface
EIncomplete casting
FIncorrect dimensions or shape
GInclusions
1.0
Porosity
Porosity in a casting may be caused by

shrinkage, or gases, or both.
Porous regions can develop in castings
because of shrinkage of the solidified
metal.
Microporosity also can develop when the
liquid metal solidifies and shrinks
between dendrites and between dendrite
branches.
Gross porosity is from shrinkage and
usually is called a shrinkage cavity.
1.0
Porosity
Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced
or eliminated by various means such as:
i. Adequate liquid metal should be provided to
avoid cavities caused by shrinkage.
ii. Internal or external chills, as those used in
sand casting also are an effective means of
reducing shrinkage porosity.
iii. With alloys, porosity can be reduced or
eliminated by making the temperature
gradient steep.
iv. Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing
is another method of reducing porosity.
1.0
Porosity
Fig 10.14 shows the various types of (a)

internal and (b) external chills (dark areas
at corners) used to eliminate porosity
caused by shrinkage.
1.0
Concept Summary
Casting is a solidification process in which

molten metal is poured into a mold and allowed
to cool.
Solidification of pure metals takes place at a
constant temperature, whereas solidification of
alloys occurs over a range of temperatures.
Composition and cooling rates of the molten
metal affect the size and shape of the grains
and the dendrites.
Melting practices have a direct effect on the
quality of castings, as do foundry operations.
1.0 Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Class Activity
1. Explain the reasons why heat transfer and fluid flow are
important in metal casting?
2. We know that pouring metal at a high rate into a mold has
certain disadvantages. Are there any disadvantages to
pouring it very slowly?
3. Why Reynolds number is important in casting?
4. Explain the reason of hot tearing in casting?
5. State the different between the short and long freezing
ranges?
6. What is different between the solidification of pure metals
and metal alloys?
7. How to test for fluidity?
8. Why it is important to remove dross/slag during pouring?
How?
9. What are some of the limitations of casting?
10. What does heat of fusion mean in casting?

1.0 Fundamentals of Casting

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.0 Fundamentals of Casting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

What is Metal Casting ?

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Casting is one of the most versatile

Egyptians were expert at investing or

Made when people realized that copper tin alloys cast

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Low cost and quick

Flow of molten metal

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Temperature as a function of time

Density as a function of time

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

After the temperature of the molten metal

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Solidification in alloys begins when the

Fig 10.4 shows the Schematic illustration of

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Within this temperature range, the alloy is

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

For alloys, a short freezing range generally

Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Gray cast iron

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Effects of Cooling Rates

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fig 10.8 shows the schematic illustration of

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Two basic principles of fluid flow:

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Turbulence is an important consideration in gating

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fluidity of a Molten Metal

The capability of the molten metal to fill

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fluidity of a Molten Metal

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Fluidity of a Molten Metal

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Fundamentals of Metal Casting