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Routes of Entry
There are three primary routes of entry into the body: ingestion, skin or
eye absorption, and inhalation.
Ingestion:- This means taking a material into the body by mouth
(swallowing). Ingestion of toxic materials may occur as a result of eating in
a contaminated work area.
Absorption- Substances that contact the eye and the skin may be either
absorbed into the body or cause local effects. For the majority of organic
compounds, the contribution from skin absorption to the total exposure
shouldnotbe neglected.
Inhalation- This means taking a material into the body by breathing it in.
In the lungs, very tiny blood vessels are in constant contact with the air we
breath in. As a result, airborne contaminants can be easily absorbed
through this tissue. In the occupational environment, this is generally the
most important route of entry.
Mutagens- agents that affect the cells of the exposed people in such
a way that it may cause cancer in the exposed individiual or an
undesirable mutation to occur in some later generation.
e.g. radiation, variety of chemical agents that alter the genetic
message.
Teratogens- Agents or compounds that a pregnant woman takes into
her body that generate defects in the fetus
e.g. Thalidomide, possibly steroids
Sensitizers-Agents that may cause allergic or allergic-like responses
to occur. After an initial exposure to a substance an individual may
become sensitized to that substance. Subsequent exposures to the
same substance, often at a much lower concentration than before,
produce an allergic response. This response may be a skin rash
(dermatitis) or an asthmatic-like attack, depending on the route of
exposure.
e.g. cutting oils, isocyanates in polyurethane foam operations and
paint spraying operations, some laboratory solvents.
1,3-butadiene
rugs, rug underpaddings, rubber tires, rubber consumer products, nylon, gasoline, auto exhaust,
groundwater
leukemia, lymph cancer, blood cell cancer; tumors of breast, bronchial tubes, stomach, large
intestine, liver, heart, thyroid (in mice: testicular tumors, leukemia)
Acetaldehyde
body metabolism of alcohol; woodstoves, incinerators, smog, diesel exhaust, byproduct of Candida
Albicans fungal infections
DNA and chromosome damage; binds to liver and other cells causing autoimmune responses;
upper
respiratory irritation, metabolic disruption, lung damage
Acetone
adhesives
neurologic damage, lung damage; enhances carbon tetrachloride liver damage
Alkylphenol resin
carbonless copy paper (NCR forms)
immune responses including itching/burning skin, rash, flushing, wheezing, cough; nausea;
hormone (prostaglandin) irregularities
Chlorinated water
drinking water, shower vapour
immune depression (anti- tumor macrophages)
Chlorobenzene pesticides ( DDT, lindane, heptachlor, aldrin,
dieldrin,endrin, chlordane, mirex; others)
food chain: fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, poultry, human fat, mothers
milk; body fat, contaminated soils, groundwater brain
transmitter changes including
neurological kindling; breast cancer (in test bacteria: genetic
mutations; in mice:
developmental learning deficits). Many are partially or completely
untested
Chloroform, carbon tetrachloride
solvents, incinerators, groundwater
liver- lung- & enzyme damage, cancers, kidney damage, cardiac
abnormalities, heart attack
Formaldehyde
solvents, printing, fabrics, mattresses, tobacco smoke, woodsmoke, foam insulation,
particle board, carand diesel exhaust,smog, groundwater
lung damage, impaired memory & dexterity, immediate and delayed hypersensitivity
reactions; asthma, rhinitis; irritation of eyes and respiration
Glycol ethers
antifreeze, paint, glue, adhesives,sealants, caulking compounds, printed circuit
boards, dyeing, inks
reproductive poisons, red blood cell damage, liver damage (in animals: fetal growth
retardation, skeletaldefects, testicular lesions) (49)
Halothane
recently the most common general anesthetic; still in use as pediatric anesthetic
neurologic damage, liver damage (in rodents: developmental brain damage,
reducedlearning andexploration in offspring, neurotransmitter changes)
Hexachlorobenzene
cleaners, fungicide
immune suppression, reduced T&B cell responses (in mice: impaired resistance to
infection))
Hexachlorophene
disinfectant, cleaning agent, soaps; used to wash hospital newborns from 1950s to
1973
nausea, vomiting, convulsions, central and peripheral nerve damage, kidney
damage; caused brain lesions and death when used to wash newborn premature
babies
Hydrazine
food additives, photographic supplies, herbicides, pesticides, textiles,
drugs,plastics
autoimmune disease (lupus) (58)
MBT ( 2 -mercaptobenzothiazole)
blood vial stoppers, syringes; rubber nipples & pacifiers and other
rubber products
damage to cell walls (cell death), allergy, rubber allergy (in animals:
cancer) (59, 60)
Methanol
glue, antifreeze, paint, cement, ink, windshield-wiper solvent; industrial
uses
neurologic damage, blindness, lung and gastro-intestinal problems;
dizziness, headache (61, 62)
Methylene chloride
pesticide sprays, gaseous lubricants,aerosols, degreasers, waxes,
paints,paint-removers, varnishes
heart muscle damage, heartbeat changes; creates carbon monoxide (in
animals: cancers) (61, 66)
N-hexane
building materials, vegetable oil extraction, gasoline, solvents, glue,
roofing glue, varnish, vinyl production,printing inks,
paints, dry-cleaning, spray painting
nerve cell damage, peripheral limb nerve damage; headache, cramps
Nitrogen dioxide
incinerators, woodsmoke, smog, auto and diesel emissions; coal, oil &
gas stoves
lung & respiratory damage, pulmonary fluid, fatty acid oxidation,
bronchitis, childhood bronchitis; formsmethemoglobin in blood (in
mice: reduced resistance to infection, lung cell damage)
Nitrosamines
consumer rubbers (tires, baby nipples and pacifiers), soaps, cosmetics,
tobacco smoke, food & foodcontainers and
packaging, marihuana smoke, pesticides, herbicides, industrial uses
DNA damage, cancers, cell death (in 30 animal species tested:
Ozone
incinerators, photochemical smog, diesel and auto exhaust, laser printers
lung immune system damag (B-cells), bronchial constriction, fatty acid
oxidation, enzyme de-activation
(in mice and rabbits: lung lesions; in rats: fat metabolism damage,
increased deaths) (9, 68, 69, 75-78)
Pentachlorophenol
wood preservative, packagingpreservative, insecticide, metabolite
oflindane & hexachlorobenzene; found in urine of75% of U.S.
population
possible genetic damage, suspected cancers; commonly contaminated
with dioxins
(in animals: fetal death and mutations) (37, 61)
Phenols
disinfectants, insecticides, fungicides (especially citrus fruit), food
additives,tobacco, marihuana, natural
foodoccurrences, incinerators
nausea, vomiting, paralysis, coma (in cats, dogs: immune depression;
in mice: trace amounts causeimmune dysfunction of yeast-killing
macrophages) (61, 91, 92)
Styrene
rubber, carpet backing, rugunderpaddings, photocopiers, copypaper,
laser printers, polystyrene foodcontainers(yogurt, others)
genetic mutations, chromosome aberrations; interference with liver
enzymes, dermatitis; skin, nasal &respiratory irritations, fatigue,
irritability; decreases in manual dexterity,concentration, and
reactiontimes
(in mice: tumors and increased death rate)
Sulphur dioxide
car and diesel exhaust, incinerators, woodsmoke, smog
lung & respiratory damage, bronchiospasm, airway irritation(in mice:
increased infection)
Tetracycline
antibiotic
fetal malformations; chelates bone calcium
Toluene-diisocyanate
typing correction fluid, polyurethane foams and elastomers (insulation,
cushions), industrial uses
immediate (type 1) immune reactions, other immune-system changes;
damage to mucous membranes;cough, wheeze; irritation of eyes, lungs
(9, 47, 102, 103)
Trichloroethylene
dry-cleaning, painting, spray painting, glue work, dewaxing and
degreasing agents, insecticides, draincleaners, printinginks, solvents,
varnishes; incinerators
damage to cranial and trigeminal (nasal) nerves, liver; brain fatty acid
changes; narcotic symptoms:dizziness, nausea, numbness, alcohol
Vinyl chloride
plastic wraps (Saran Wrap), PVCplastics, pipes and
connectors;packing materials, wire and cable coatings, footwear,
spray-propellant gas, hard flooring, vinyl records,groundwater
liver, brain & lung cancers; trigeminal nerve damage, vinyl chloride
disease (loss of bone calcium,auto-immune complexes, peripheral
nerve damage, Raynauds symptoms, immune complex
disorder);skin damage, T-cell depression, kidney damage; sexual and
sleep disorders (9, 11, 104-106)
Xylene
paints, thinners, solvents, gasoline, polystyrene cups, adhesives,
roofing glue, building materials, varnish, cleaners,
paper,photochemical smog, groundwater
lung enzyme damage, upper respiratory irritation, fatigue, headache,
nausea; impaired balance andreaction times