MATERIALS, PROCESSES

AND DEFECTS

K. SURESH
SENANAYAKE

Basic Properties
The qualities of materials that are of
practical interest to manufacturing are
determined from various properties.
Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
Mechanical Properties
Processing Properties

Chemical Properties
The chemical properties (reaction with other
materials) are of interest for all material mainly
because of the almost universal need for
resistance to corrosion.

Physical Properties

Physical properties for each material are

constants associated with the atomic structure.
These properties include density, crystalline type,
atomic spacing, specific heat, cohesive strength,
and melting point.

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties are of prime
importance
in
design
considerations
for
determining sizes and shapes necessary for
carrying
Hardnessloads.
strength etc.

Processing Properties
Describe the ability of the
processed in definite ways.

Castability,
Weldability
Machinability, and
Bending

material

to

be

Significance of properties to
design
A designer is necessarily interested
in properties because he must know
material strengths before he can
calculate sizes and shapes required
to carry loads, chemical properties to
meet corrosive conditions, and other
properties to satisfy other functional
requirements.

Loading Systems and Material

Failure
Physical loading of materials is a result
of applying force under one or more
simple, basic loading systems.
Normal stresses
Shear stresses
Bending
Effects of stresses

Testing
Direct testing
The only test that supplies absolute information about a work
piece or a material.

Indirect testing
The use of such a correction, such that accurate knowledge of
the relationship between the two factors must exist.

Destructive testing
The methods of testing that are applied to material or
component in order to determine the characteristic properties
by subjecting it to either partial damage or total failure.

Non Destructive Testing (NDT)

The test used for characterising a material or part
properties/conditions that are not subjecting it to severe
damage or destruction.

Testing
Standardised tests
Many properties are defined only by the test procedure that has
been developed for their measurement.

Tensile testing
In the tensile test the sample is elongated in a uni-axial tension at
a constant rate and the load necessary to produce a given
elongation is measured as a dependant variable.
Stress Strain diagram

AB: Elastic deformation

B: Elastic Limit
C: Yield point
E: Ultimate strength
F: Breaking (rupture)
strength

Testing
Compression testing

Compression test is usually used to test brittle materials, which are

often weak when subjected to tension.
These materials can nevertheless be quite strong in compression.
Brittle materials are chiefly used in compression, where their strength
is much higher.

Hardness testing

Brinell test
Rockwell test
Vickers test

Fatigue testing
A metal may fail under sufficient cycles of repeated stress, even though
the maximum stress applied is considerably less than the strength of
the material determined by the static test.
Fatigue strength

The stress that can be applied for some arbitrary number of cycles without
failure when the endurance limit cannot be determined, or it is impractical to
carry on a test long enough for this determination.

Testing
Creep testing
Continuous deformation of a material
under constant load, producing unit
stresses below those of the elastic limit.
As operating temperature increase, the
deformation by slow plastic flow becomes
very important in the design and use of
material.

Discontinuities, Defects and Indications

What are the differences between discontinuities, defects
and indications?
Discontinuity:

Discontinuity is defined as any imperfection or interruption in the

normal physical structure of an article.
A discontinuity in metal may be a hole, crack, inclusion or anything
else that breaks the continuity of the metal.
Discontinuities may be found on the surface of the metal or within the
metal itself.
The discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of the product.

Defect:

Defect is defined as a discontinuity, which is judged as unacceptable

to the codes, standards or specification used.

Indication:

Indication used in non-destructive testing is to denote the presence of

a discontinuity.

Metal Discontinuities
Should identify the types of metal manufacturing and service
discontinuities (i.e. to know what causes the defects)

Inherent Processing Defects:

The refining stage where metals are extracted
from ores

Primary Processing Defects:

Metal ingots are worked into usable forms such as
billets or blooms by wrought processing or casting.

Secondary Processing Defects:

Final stages of parts manufacturing

Service Defects:
Occurs during the use of the part

Inherent Processing Defects

These discontinuities are related to the melting and solidification of
the original ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms and billets.

Non metallic inclusions (Slag)

are
caused
by
impurities
accidentally included in the
molten metal.

Porosity (Blown Holes)

is caused by entrapped gas in

the molten metal.

Pipe

is caused by molten metal

shrinking when it cools and
solidifies

Segregation

non uniform distribution of

alloying elements or impurities

Processing Defects
Casting and Casting Defects
Castings are made by pouring liquid
metal into a mould.
These moulds are formed close to
the shape of finish part.
When the metal solidifies it is remove
from the mould.
Casting moulds are usually made
from sand, clay and water.

Casting and Casting Defects

The basic steps of casting process are;
Preparation of pattern, die
Preparation of mould cavity
Heating and melting of metal
Pouring of molten metal into the mould cavity
Removal of the part, further cleaning and shaping

Casting defects
Cold laps / shuts
Porosity
Blow holes / gas holes
Air locks
Hot tears
Shrinkage cavities
Cracks / stress cracks
Sand inclusions
Slag and other inclusions

Casting defects

Cold shuts
Cold shuts are produced when
there is an interruption in casting
process.
i.e. when molten metal is poured
over solidified metal.

Porosity
The entrapped gas causes
porosity.

Blow holes
Blow holes are caused by steam
or gas produced from the mould.

Casting defects

Hot tears
Hot tears are usually occur at
the junction of the light and
heavy sections due to unequal
cooling rate.

Shrinkage cavities
Shrinkage cavities are caused by
shrinkage just as pipe is formed
in an ingot.
This is the property which metal
has of occupying more space
when it is liquid than when it is
solid.

Air locks
Air locks are cavities formed by
air trapped in the mould during
pouring of the casting.

Casting defects

Cracks / stress cracks

Discontinuities due to the
fracture of metal during or after
solidification.
These are approximately straight
and form when metal has
become completely solid.

Sand inclusions
Irregular holes on or near the
surface of casting.
Usually have rough sides and
sand adhering to them.

Slag
Appear as flaws or irregular
surfaces where foreign body has
been enveloped with the cast
metal.

Forging and Forging Defects

Forging is the working of metal into a desired shape
by hammering or pressing the ,metal while it is hot
and in soft condition.
There are two primary types of discontinuities
formed as a result of discontinuities formed as a
result of forging.

Forging defects
Forging laps
Forging burst

Forging defects

Forging laps
Forging lap is a discontinuity caused by folding of metal in a thin
plate on the surface of the forging.

Forging bursts
Forging burst is a rupture caused by forging at improper
temperature.

Rolling and Rolling Defects

After primary ingot casting, the crapped ingot is then rolled into a
slab or billet or bloom.
Inherent discontinuities such as pipe, inclusion and porosity in the
ingot will now become lamination, stringers and seam (crack).

Rolling defects
Laps
Seams
Lamination

Welding and Welding defects

A welding process is a materials
joining
process
which
producers
coalescence of materials by heating
them to suitable temperature, with or
without the application of pressure or
by the application of pressure alone
and with or without the use of filler
metal.
Welding
discontinuities
can
be
classified
into
two
categories
dimensional
and
structural
discontinuities.
Dimensional
discontinuities
are
discrepancies
resulting
from
the
completed weld not being within
specified dimensions of size and/or
shape.
For example excessive reinforcement,
underfill,
undercut,
overlap,
misalignment, incomplete penetration,
etc.

Welding and Welding defects

Structural discontinuities are
discrepancies that interrupt the
uniform composition of a weld
joint such that its mechanical
properties are reduced.
Common discontinuities found
in the weld are porosity, slag
inclusion, crack, lack of fusion,
incomplete
penetration,
excessive penetration, etc.

Grinding and Grinding

Defects
Grinding is a process used to produce smooth surface
or remove small amount of metal.
Typical discontinuities found after this process are
grinding cracks.
Grinding cracks are usually oriented perpendicularly to
the direction of rotating wheel (grinder).

Heat Treating Defects

Heat-treating is basically the process of hardening or
softening metals by controlled heating and cooling.
Typical heat treating discontinuities are heat treat
cracks, which have no specific direction.

Drawing Defects
It is a process where a cross-section of solid rod, wire,
or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it
through a die.
Seams
Similar to seams produced during rolling

Centre burst
Similar to centre burst produced during extrusion

Extrusion Defects
Extrusion is a process where a billet
is forced through a die.
Typical products of extrusion
Sliding doors, tubing having various
cross-sections, structural and
architectural shapes and door and
window frames.

Cracking
Blisters

Service induced defects

Service induced defects are defects found in the
materials which are subjected to various service
conditions such as corrosion, fatigue cracks, stress
corrosion cracking, embrittlement (loss of ductility)
material losses, etc.

Thank
You!