Jewish americans

OVERVIEW
Jews

represent a group of people rather than

a distinct race or ethnicity. Although Jews
originally came from the Middle East, many
races and peoples have mixed together in
Jewish communities over the centuries,
especially after the Jews were forced out of
Palestine in the second centuryC.E.What
binds the group together is a common Jewish
heritage as passed down from generation to
generation.

 Most

Jews consider the State of Israel the Jewish homeland.

Located in the Middle East with a land mass of 7,992 square
miles, Israel is only slighter larger than New Jersey. It is
bounded by Lebanon in the north, by Syria and Jordan in the
east, by Egypt in the southwest, and by the Mediterranean Sea
in the west. With a population of approximately 4.2 million
Jews, Israel is home to about one-third of the world Jewry,
estimated at 12.9 million at the end of 1992. However, not all
Jews consider Israel home. Some feel the United States, with
5.8 million Jews, is the de facto home of Jews, evidenced in
part by the fact that Israel is sometimes called "Little America"
because of its similarities to the United States. Accounting for
more than three-fourths of the world Jewry, Israel and the
United States represent the two major Jewish population
regions.

EUROPEAN LIFE
European

Jews are divided mainly between the Jews of Spain and Portugal,
the Sephardim, and the Jews from German-speaking countries in central and
eastern Europe, the Ashkenazim. The distinction between the Sephardim and
AshkenazimHebrew terms for Spanish and German Jewscontinues to be
the major classification of Jews, with 75 percent of today's world Jewry being
Ashkenazic. In medieval Europe, Sephardic Jews enjoyed the most freedom
and cultural acceptance. Between the ninth and fifteenth centuries Sephardic
Jews made significant cultural and literary contributions to Spain while it was
under Islamic rule. By contrast, Ashkenazic Jews in the north lived uneasily
among Christians, who saw Jews as "Christ killers" and who resented Jews for
thinking of themselves as a chosen people. Christians subjected Jews to
violence and destroyed Jewish communities beginning with the First Crusade
in 1096. Jewish populations were driven from England and France in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. By the beginning of the Spanish
Inquisition in 1492, Jews from Spain faced similar oppression, violence, and
expulsion from Spanish Christians. As a result, Sephardic Jews spread out to
Mediterranean countries, while the majority of Ashkenazic Jews moved east to
Poland, which became the center of European Jewry.

 In

Poland, Jews were permitted to create a series of councils and

courts that together represented a minority self-government
within the country. In individual Jewish communities,
thekehillahwas the governing structure comprised of elected
leaders who oversaw volunteer organizations involved in all
aspects of social and religious life in the community. The
disintegration of the Polish state in the eighteenth century,
however, disrupted community life and caused many to emigrate.
By the nineteenth century, Jews in eastern Europe were primarily
split between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The governments in
these countries, however, oppressed Jews through military
conscription, taxation, and expulsion. Though relatively
impoverished, the four million Jews in the Pale of Settlement (a
region encompassing eastern Poland and western Russia)
maintained their Jewish traditions through close community life.

 By

contrast, Jews in Western Europe fared much better economically

and socially as they gained acceptance in England, France, and
Austria-Hungary after the Protestant Reformation. Northern European
cities with large Protestant populations such as London, Hamburg,
and Amsterdam increasingly opened their doors to Jews. In order to
fully assimilate and become citizens, these Jews sometimes had to
renounce Jewish laws, self-government, and the quest for
nationhood. Still, many Jews were eager to comply, some even
becoming Christians. As a result, many western European Jews
attained significant wealth and status, generally through banking and
trade. In addition to material prosperity, German Jews also enjoyed a
period of heightened cultural activity during the Jewish
Enlightenment of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, a
period marked by free inquiry and increased political activism.
Political turmoil by the mid-nineteenth century, however, brought
upheaval to Jewish communities, prompting many to emigrate.

IMMIGRATION WAVES
The

largest wave of Jewish immigrants were eastern

European Jews who came to America between 1881
and 1924. During these years one third of the Jewish
population in eastern Europe emigrated because of
changing political and economic conditions.
Jewish population in relation to the general U.S.
population peaked in 1937 at 3.7 percent. Limits on
immigration and a Jewish birthrate of less than two
children per familylower than the national average
have lowered the Jewish proportion of the American
population to under three percent. This proportion has
remained relatively stable, even as the American
Jewish population approached six million in the 1990s.

TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, AND

BELIEFS
Jewish

traditions and customs primarily derive from the practice

of Judaism. The most important Jewish traditions stem from
themitzvot,which are the 613 holy obligations found in the
Torah and Talmud. Consisting of 248 positive commandments
(Thou shall's) and 365 negative commandments (Thou shall
not's), these commandments fall into three categories:Edot,or
"testimonies," are rules that help Jews bear witness to their faith
(e.g., rules on what garments to wear);Mishpatim(judgments)
are rules of behavior found in most religions (e.g., the rule
against stealing); andHukim(statutes) are divine rules that
humans cannot fully understand (e.g., dietary rules). No one
person can possibly fulfill all 613mitzvotsince they include laws
for different people in different situations. Even the most
Orthodox Jew in modern times is expected to observe less than
half of the obligations.

 The

basic beliefs common to all Jews, except atheists and

agnostics, were articulated by Moses Maimonides (11351204). Known as the Thirteen Principles of the Faith, they
are: (1) God alone is the creator; (2) God is One; (3) God is
without physical form; (4) God is eternal; (5) humans pray
only to God; (6) the words of the prophets are true; (7) the
greatest prophet was Moses; (8) today's Torah is the one
God gave to Moses; (9) the Torah will not be replaced; (10)
God knows people's thoughts; (11) the good are rewarded
and the evil are punished; (12) the Messiah will come; and,
(13) the dead will be revived. Although most of the Jewish
faithful share these broad beliefs, there is no specific
requirement to commit all 13 to memory.

CUISINE
There

is no specific Jewish cuisine, only lists of

permissible and impermissible foods for Orthodox
Jews and others who observekashrut.Delineated in
the Book of Leviticus and dating back to
1200B.C.E.,kashrutis a system of food laws for
eatingkosherfoods and
avoidingtrefafoods.Kosherfoods are simply ones
that are, by law, fit for Jews; they include:
-- fruits, vegetables, grains, meat from cud-chewing
mammals with split hooves (e.g., sheep, cows,
goats), fish with scales and fins (e.g., salmon,
herring, perch), domesticated birds (e.g., chicken,
turkey, duck), and milk and eggs from kosher
mammals and birds.

 Trefafoods

are forbidden by Jewish

law, simply because of biblical decree,
not because such foods are unfit for
human consumption; they include:
-- meat from unkosher mammals
(e.g., pork, rabbit, horse), birds of
prey (e.g., owls, eagles), and water
animals that do not have both scales
and fins (e.g., lobster, crab, squid).

 Kashrutalso

prescribes that the slaughter of

animals shall be painless. Thus, a Jewish butcher
(shohet) studies the anatomy of animals to learn
the precise spot where killing may occur
instantaneously. After the animal is killed, the
blood must be completely drained and any
diseased portions removed. Finally, kashrut
involves keeping meat and milk separate. Because
of the biblical commandment not to "stew a kid in
its mother's milk," Jewish law has interpreted this
to mean that meat and dairy products cannot be
prepared or consumed together.

HEALTH ISSUES
Before

coming to America, Jews living in small

communities in Europe occasionally suffered from
amaurotic idiocy, an inherited pathology attributed to
inbreeding. During the early twentieth century, when
the largest waves of Jewish immigrants arrived in
America, Russian Jewish immigrants were afflicted with
nervous disorders, suicides, and tuberculosis more
often than other immigrants. Despite these afflictions,
Jews had a lower death rate than other immigrants at
the time. Recently, the National Foundation for Jewish
Genetic Diseases published a list of the seven most
common genetic diseases suffered by Jews:

 Bloom

Syndrome: a disease causing shortness in height

(usually less than five feet), redness of skin, and
susceptibility to respiratory tract and ear infections.
Affected men often experience infertility and both sexes
have an increased risk of cancer. Just over 100 cases have
been reported since the disease was discovered in 1954,
but one in 120 Jews are carriers and children from two
carriers have a 25 percent chance of contracting the
disease.
Familial Dysautonomia: a congenital disease of the
nervous system resulting in stunted growth, increased
tolerance of pain, and lack of tears. One in 50 Ashkenazi
Jews in America carries the gene, and the risk of
recurrence in affected families is 25 percent.

 Gaucher

Disease: a disease that in its mildest formthe

form common to Jewsis characterized by easy bruising,
orthopedic problems, anemia, and a variety of other
symptoms. The more advanced forms of the disease are
fatal but rare and not concentrated in any one ethnic
group. One out of 25 Ashkenazi Jews carries the recessive
gene, and one in 2,500 Jewish babies is afflicted.
Mucolipidosis IV: a recently discovered disease (1974)
involving the deterioration of the central nervous system in
babies who later develop mild or more severe retardation.
Thus far only handful of cases have been reported, all by
Ashkenazi Jews. The disease only occurs when both parents
are carriers, with 25 percent of babies from such parents
being affected.

 Niemann-Pick

Disease: a usually fatal disease characterized by a

buildup of fatty materials causing enlargement of the spleen,
emaciation, and degradation of the central nervous system.
Afflicted babies typically die before the age of three, but survival
into young adulthood is possible in milder cases. The disease
affects about 25 Ashkenazi Jews each year in the United States.
Tay-Sachs Disease: a biochemical disorder causing retardation in
babies as early as the fourth month and leading to a deterioration
of the central nervous system that ends in death, usually
between the ages of five and eight. Approximately one in 25 Jews
is a carrier, with the risk that 25 percent of babies from two
carriers will have Tay-Sachs. Screening techniques have enabled
carriers to bring only normal babies to term.
Torsion Dystonia: a disease involving an increasing loss of motor
control coupled with normal to superior intelligence affecting
children between the ages of four and 16. One in 70 Ashkenazi
Jews in America is a carrier, with one out of every 20,000 Jewish
babies developing the disease.

Language
One

of the strongest unifying links between Jews throughout

the world is the Hebrew language. From the time of Abraham
in 2000B.C.E.until the Babylonians captured Judah in
586B.C.E., Hebrew was the everyday language of Jews. Since
then, Jews have generally adopted the vernacular of the
societies in which they have resided, including Arabic, German,
Russian, and English. Hebrew continued to be spoken and
read, but primarily in sacred contexts. Most of the Torah is
written in Hebrew, and religious services are mostly in Hebrew,
though Progressive synagogues will make greater use of the
language of the community. The use of Hebrew in religious
worship enables Jews from all parts of the world to enjoy a
common bond. In the twentieth century, Hebrew regained its
status as an everyday language in Israel, where it is the official
language.

GREETINGS AND OTHER

POPULAR EXPRESSIONS
Commonly

heard expressions are:ShalomPeace (a general

greeting);Shalom lekhaHello/Goodbye (an everyday
greeting);Barukh ha-haBlessed be the one who comes (a
general welcome to guests often used at weddings or
circumcisions);Mazel tov Good luck (a wish for luck
commonly used at births,bar mitzvahs,and weddings);LehayyimTo life/Cheers (a traditional toast wishing someone
good health);Ad me'ah ve-esrim shanaMay you live until 120
(an expression meaning good wishes for a long life);Tizkeh leshanimLong life to you (an expression wishing someone
happy birthday or happy anniversary);Hag same'ahA happy
holiday (a general holiday greeting used for all Jewish
festivals);L'shana tovaGood year (a shortened version of
"may you be inscribed in the Book of Life for a good year,"
which is wished during Rosh Hashanah).

BIRTHS, WEDDINGS, AND

FUNERALS
Jewish

babies usually receive two names, an everyday name and a Hebrew

name used in the synagogue and on religious documents. The naming of
the baby occurs after birth at a baby-naming service or, for many male
babies, when they are circumcised. Since the emergence of Judaism some
4,000 years ago, Jews have observed the tradition ofbrit milah(covenant of
circumcision). Although the practice of cutting the foreskin of male babies
probably served a hygienic purpose originally, circumcision has come to
represent the beginning of life in the Jewish community. To be sure, many
non-Jews are circumcised, and being born of a Jewish mother is sufficient to
make a baby Jewish. Nonetheless, circumcision is traditionally associated
with the keeping of the covenant between Abraham and God as well as with
physical and ethical purity. Thebrit milahmust occur eight days after birth,
unless the baby is sick. The ceremony takes place in the home and is
usually performed by amohel,an observant Jew who may be a rabbi,
doctor, or simply one skilled in the technique. After the circumcision, which
occurs very quickly and without much pain, a celebration of food, prayers,
and blessings follows.

 Jewish

weddings are marked by several distinct traditions. The ceremony

occurs under ahuppah,a canopy open on all four sides, symbolizing the
openness of the bride and groom's new home. Thehuppahcan be placed in a
home or outdoors but is most often used in a synagogue. Under
thehuppah,the bride circles the groom a set number of times, the couple is
blessed, and they both drink from the same cup of wine, a sharing which
demonstrates that from this point forward they will share a life together. The
heart of the ceremony, the only part required to make the marriage legally
binding, occurs next. The groom places a ring on the right-hand index finger
of the bride, proclaiming, "Behold you are consecrated to me by this ring
according to the law of Moses and Israel." If at least two witnesses observe
her accept the ring, the marriage is complete. The ceremony is rounded out
by the signing of the marriage contract (theketubah), the singing of seven
blessings (theSheva brahot), and the traditional smashing of the glass by the
husband. Breaking a glass symbolizes the destruction of the Temple in
Jerusalem and the fact that the couple will have to face hard times together.
When the glass is broken, guests exclaim, "Mazel tov" (good luck), and a
wedding feast ensues.

 Jewish

funerals and mourning are characterized by a sense of

frankness toward the reality of death. Funerals occur soon
after a person dies, usually within a day or two unless family
travel plans or the observance of Sabbath delays the service
for an extra day. Arrangements for the deceased are handled
by thehevra kadisha(holy society), which is a volunteer
organization within the synagogue responsible for preparing
the body. Such preparation does not involve make-up or
embalming but instead consists of dressing the person in
white, perhaps wrapping the deceased with his or her prayer
cloth, ortallit.In modern times, thehevra kadishaare
sometimes assisted by professionals, but not for profit. The
ceremony is usually short and is followed by burial at the
cemetery, where family members will recite theKaddish,a
traditional prayer celebrating God and life.

 For

Orthodox survivors, four stages of mourning have evolved

over the years which encourage expression of grief so that the
healing process may occur without delay. From the time a person
dies until the funeral, mourners cease working, gather together,
and do not generally receive visitors, primarily because any
comfort at this point is premature and only causes unnecessary
strain. The second stage occurs during the first week after the
funeral, when the family observesshiva.At this time, mourners
do not generally work but open their homes to visitors who offer
their sympathy. The next stage isshaloshim,which lasts for three
weeks after shiva and is marked by a resumption of work and
other obligations, but entertainment is avoided. Finally, there is a
last phase of light mourning for spouses or immediate family
members that ends 11 months after the funeral. By the
anniversary of a person's death, mourning is complete.

ISRAEL
For centuries Jews have sustained a commitment to establishing a
homeland for Jews at some point. The longing to return to Zion, the hill
on which Jerusalem was built, remained a vague dream until 1896,
when Theodor Herzl wroteThe Jewish State,which called for modern
Palestine to be the home for Hebrew culture. The following year the first
Zionist Congress convened in Basle, which along with Herzl's book
marked the beginning of Zionism as an official movement. By 1914,
some 12,000 American Jews had become Zionists. The movement was
bolstered by the 1934 publication of Conservative Mordecai M. Kaplan's
influentialJudaism as a Civilization,which argued that Judaism as a
religion reflected the totality of the Jewish people's consciousness. As
such, Kaplan asserted that Jewish culture deserved its own central
location, Palestine. After World War II, the effort to establish a Jewish
state was helped considerably when the British gave the United Nations
control of Palestine. In November of 1947 the United Nations approved
a resolution to partition Palestine into Arab and Jewish regions. When
Israel declared itself a nation on May 14, 1948, President Harry Truman
decided to officially recognize Israel, despite a longstanding warning
from the U.S. State Department that such recognition could anger oilproducing Arab countries.

 Since

the late 1930s American Jews have

contributed billions of dollars in aid to
help Israel deal with its immigration
burdens and tenuous relations with Arab
neighbors. While the periods of military
strife in 1948, 1967, and 1973 brought
forth the greatest contributions from the
American Jewish community, financial
support for various philanthropic projects
has been steady over the years.

END