INSTRUMENTS

Instruments are used for continuous

monitoring and controlling the process
variables such as
1.Flow
2.Pressure
3.Level
4.Temperature
And also Controlling devices &
various Analytical Equipments

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TOPICS
1.Flow Measurement
2.Pressure Measurement
3.Temperature Measurement
4.Level Measurement
5.Control Valve
6.Control Valve Accessories
7.Control Loops
8. Analytical Instruments
9.Detector-Fire & Gas
10.Instruments Calibration
11.Codes, standards & Specification
12.Instruments Symbols
13.Regulators
14.Pressure Relief Valve
15.Surge Controls
EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW
MEASUREMENT
1.Flow Transmitter
2.Flow Switch
3.Flow gauge
HOME

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW RATE

Flow Rate Flow rate is an indication of how fast a substance moves through a
conduit from one place to another. Flow rate is usually expressed as Volume
flow rate & Mass flow rate
Volume Flow Rate represents the volume of fluid that passes a measurement
point over a period of time. An example measurement unit is kg per hour. The
volume flow rate can be calculated if the average flow velocity and inside pipe
diameter are known. The calculation is based on the formula
Q=Axv
where
Q = volumetric flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
v = average flow velocity (flow rate)
Mass Flow Rate represents the amount of mass that passes a specific point
over a period of time.
Mass flow rates are used to measure the weight or mass of a substance
flowing through a process operation. If the volumetric flow rate and density are
known, the calculation is based on the formula
W=Qxr
where
W = mass flow rate
Q = volumetric flow rate
r = density (r = density rho )

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW TRANSMITTER

DIFFERENTIAL Pr TRANSMITTER
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER

TURBINE FLOWMETER

VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER

VORTEX FLOWMETER

MASSFLOW METER-CORIOLIS

FLOW

EDWIN SELVARAJ

5 Port
Manifold

PRIMARY DEVICE
This portion sensing or
detecting
the variable to be
measured

SECONDARY DEVICE
This portion transforms the
detected
signal to the interpretable
stage where
it can be utilized
For read or further control

EDWIN SELVARAJ

DP TRANSMITTER PARTS
1.COVER
2.O-RING, COVER
14 & 15.PLUG,DRAIN/VENT
18.O-RING,PROCESS FLANGE
19.MODULE,SENSOR
20.O-RING,FLANGE ADAPTOR
21.FLANGE ADAPTOR
24.PCB,ELECTRONICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW ELEMENT
Orifice Plate
Pitot
Venturi
Differential Pressure

Advantages:
Simple, no moving parts
Disadvantages:
Susceptible to wear in dirty services
except vertically
Orifice edge sharpness affects accuracy

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ORIFICE FLOW MEASUREMENT

DP TR
EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW ELEMENT
Bluff Body

VORTEX

Advantages: No
moving parts
Disadvantages: Bluff body can
corrode

Rotor
Advantages: Accuracy

TURBINE

Disadvantages: Moving parts can

wear

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW ELEMENT

Flow Element
Positive Displacement (PD)
Oval Gear
Sliding Vane
Nutating Disk

Disadvantages:

Many moving parts subject to wear

Prefilters for dirty service

Mass Coriolis Thermal Mass

Advantages:

Very low maintenance (Coriolis)

No moving parts, corrosive fluid may effect element
(Thermal Mass)
Magnetic Field (EMF
AC Field
DC Field

METER)
Advantages:
Low maintenance element
Very low maintenance

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TURBINE FLOWMETR
Fluid enters the turbine meter trough
the flow conditioner which imposes an
evenly distrubuted pattern on the flow
striking on the turbine wheel. The
blades of the rotor are positioned
under an angle 30 to 40 deg. The fluid
passes through the turbine, causing
the turbine to rotate at a speed proportional
to fluid velocity. As each turbine blade cuts the magnetic field
generated by the meter's magnetic assembly, a pulse induces in
the pick-up coil.These pulses provide an output frequency that is
proportional to volumetric flow.
What is the most common problem with the meters?
Debris. Debris getting into the meter body may cause readings to
be too high, too low, or result in no readings at all. This problem
may be solved with the use of a filter or strainer upstream of the
meter
Flow
F
l

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Magnetic Flowmeter

The operating principle of the magnet flow tube is based on FARDAYS

LAW of electromagnetic induction, which states that voltage will be
induced in a conductor moving through magnetic field.

Faradays Law: E=kBDV

The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to
the velocity of the conductor V, conductor width D, and strength of
the magnetic field B.

The field coils placed on opposite side of the pipe generate magnetic
field. The process liquid moves through the field with average
velocity V, electrodes sense the induced voltage. The distance of the
electrode is the width of the conductor. The two electrodes acting as
+ve and ve element.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Magnetic Flowmeters
ELECTRODE

FT

MAGNETIC
COIL

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ELECTRODE

VORTEX METER
The operating principle of the
Vortex Meter is based on the VAN
KARMAN EFFECT. As fluid passes a
bluff body, it seperates and generates
small eddies or vortices that are shed
alternately along and behind each side
of the bluff body. These vortices cause
areas of fluctuating pressure that are detected by the
sensor. The frequency of vortex generation is directly
proportional to fluid velocity.
Fluid velocity = Vortex frequency / K-factor
K-factor relates the frequency of vortex generation of
fluid velocity
Flow

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ULTRA FM-Transit Time

Method
The meter use sound waves to determine the flowrate. Pulses from
piezoelectric transducer travel through a moving fluid at speed of sound
and provide an indication of flow velocity.
1. Transit-time method, in which two opposing transducers are mounted so
that sound waves traveling between them are at 45 Deg. Angle to the
direction of flow within a pipe. The speed of sound from upstream
transducer to the downstream transducer represents the inherent speed
of sound plus contribution
due to the velocity. In a
simultaneous measurement in
the opposite direction a value
is representative of the fluid
velocity, which is linearly
proportional to the flow rate.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ULTRA FM-Doppler Method

Doppler Effect- In this type two
sensing elements mounted
same side of the tube. A
ultrasonic sound wave is
transmitted into the fluid by
one of the elements. Solids or
bubbles in the fluid reflects the
sound back to the receiver
element. The difference
between the transmitted
frequency and receiving
frequency and receiving
frequency is directly
proportional to the flow rate

EDWIN SELVARAJ

today

yesterday

Ultrasonic Measurement

Sound guided obliquely Helix-shaped ultrasonic

through the pipe
signal giving accurate
cross-section
integration via the whole
profile

EDWIN SELVARAJ

The new helix-shaped

ultrasonic signal
High measuring accuracy
independent of flow profile
Laminar-turbulent even in the
cross-over area and also with
laminar flow
Even with high viscosities
Even with small nominal
diameters
Even with small flow velocities
Accuracy limits:
0,5 % at a 1 : 25 turndown
1 % at a 1 : 100 turndown

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Mass Flowmeter: CORIOLIS

Tube Vibration:

Coriolis meter are made up one or more vibrating tubes,

usually bent. The fluid to be measured, travels through the
tube.
The fluid accelerates as it approaches the point of maximum
vibration and decelerates as it leaves the point. As a result the
tube takes twisting motion. The amount of twisting motion is
Directly proportional the mass flow. Positon detectors are used
to sense the position of vibrating tubes
Flow
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Mass ProBar Flowmeter

Mass ProBar flowmeter measures static
pressure, temperature and diff pr
with only one tap into process line.
One electronics packages integrated
into the sensing probe is all that is
required to sense DP, P, & Temp.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Mass ProBar-Flow Element-Annubar

EDWIN SELVARAJ

VA Flowmeter-Rotameter

FT
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Flow switch
A Flow switch is normally a
simple device that monitors
flow and sends a trip signal
to another device such as a
pump to protect it. Some flow
switch applications are 1. Pump
Protection 2. Cooling circuit
protection 3. High and low flow
rate alarm and general flow
monitoring. Flow switch types are
used on air, steam and liquid.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

SIGHT FLOW GAUGE

Sight Flow Gauge provide the
flow detection, and depending
upon process , show variation in
flow.
Two Models:- Rotor Type &
Paddle Type.
HEAD
GASKET

WINDOW
FASTNER

SPACER
FLOW

EDWIN SELVARAJ

PRESSURE MEASURMENT

1.PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
2.PRESSURE GAUGE
3.PRESSURE SWITCH

TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Types of Pressure
Differential Pressure: The difference in static pressure between
two identical pressure taps at the same elevation located in two
different locations in a primary device.
Static Pressure: Pressure of a fluid whether in motion or at rest.
It can be sensed in a small hole drilled perpendicular to and flush
with the flow boundaries so as not to disturb the fluid in any way.
Absolute Pressure: This is pressure exerted by a system having
complete vacuum as ref point AP = Gauge Pr + Atmospheric Pr
Atmospheric pressure: This is pressure exerted by the
Atmosphere surrounding the Earth and the ref point is sea level
Gauge pressure: This pressure above Atmospheric. Represents
positive difference between measured pressure and existing
Atmospheric pressure.
Line Pressure: P = F / A
Vacuum Pressure: Pressure below atmospheric

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

PRIMARY DEVICE This portion

sensing or
detecting the variable to be measured

SECONDARY DEVICE
This portion transforms the detected
signal to the interpretable stage where
it can be utilized
For read or further control

EDWIN SELVARAJ

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
ELEMENTS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TRANSMITTER PARTS

PRESSURE
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pressure Transmitter

Pressure
transmitter

Absolute-pressure
transmitter
Liquid level
transmitter

Differential pressure and

flow transmitter

EDWIN SELVARAJ

PT-Measuring Principle
Pressure acts on the separating diaphragm
Silicone liquid (or an inert liquid)
transmits the pressure to the sensor
Four piezoelectric resistors in
the measuring diaphragm in bridge
connection change their resistance value the bridge output voltage is therefore
proportional to the
pressure
With overload from
one side the
separating
diaphragm
closes up
Overload protection
due to large
central diaphragm

Sensor

Measuring cell
for pressure
_

+
Measuring cell for
differential pressure

Separating diaphragm Central diaphragm

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Operation
Can be set on site or via digital communication
(HART protocol, Profibus PA)
Start of the scale and end of the scale can be
set on site without setting the pressure (blind
adjustment)
Electrical damping
Loop check function
Linear/sq. root characteristic
curve with differential pressure
transmitter
Output signal in the case of
error (3.6 mA or 22.8 mA)
Key lock
Plant-specific effects
(position error, environmental influences)
compensated at the press of a

button

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Modular design

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Special materials allow a wide variety

of applications
Difficult applications
in the chemical
industry,
petrochemicals,
pharmacy,
foodstuffs,
power station, ...

Stainless steel for

80% of all media found in
industry
Hastelloy C 276 for
chloroacetic acid, formic acid,
acetone

SITRANS P measuring cells

are also suitable for critical
media due to the use of
special materials

Monel for
fluorides, cyanides,
sea water
Tantalum for
phosphorus chlorides, sodium
chloride, hydrochloric acid
Gold for
hydrogen

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Connection of the HART

Communicator
Field level

Control level
min.
4 ... 20 mA
250 Supply
disconnector

Smart
supply
disconnector

4 ... 20 mA
+
HART signal

EDWIN SELVARAJ

with PROFIBUS-PA
PROFIBUS-PA = PROFIBUS-DP
communication and optimized
transmission technology for field
devices
PROFIBUS-PA for hazardous areas
Interface acc. IEC 1158-2 and EN
50170
Electronic current limiting acts
without
delay, prevents bus overloading
and even guarantees data
transmission
with non-faulty stations in the case
of
a device error

P R O C E S S F IE L D B U S

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Seals:

media

-For measuring
aggressive,
paste-like,
or hot measured
and those
containing solids
-All kinds of seals
available

-With different types

of connection
(e.g. Clamp, flange etc.)
Stopcock
Supply disconnector
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pressure Gauge

C-Type Bourdon
Element

Pr Measur
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pressure Switch
A pressure switch is an instrument that automatically senses change
in the pressure and opens or closes an electrical switching
element when predetermined pressure point is reached

Diaphragm Type

Pressure

Bourdon Type

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Piezoelectric Type

Temperature Measurement

TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT

TEMPERATURE
TRANSMITTER

TEMPERATURE
ELEMENT

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THERMOWELL

THERMOWELL

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THERMOWELL

Thermowells in conductive materials are used to separate the thermometer from

the medium. Thermowell protect the thermometers from aggressive media and
facilitate replacement of the thermometer. A thermowell is basically a hallow metal
tube with one ended sealed. It is permently mounted in the pipe or vessel. The
thermocouple inserted into the hallow
U Length This length called as a immersion length of a
well typically referred to as the U. The length is measured from the bottom of the
threads or flange to tip of the well. Accuracy of the sensor can be affected by the
immersion length of the well. A rule of thumb is to immerse a thermocouple at
least 3 in gases and 1 in liquids. Add 2 this rule for RTDs.
T Length- This length is between process connection and top end of the well
BORE SIZE will accommodate sheathed thermocouples, RTDs and

thermometers
Reason for fails:
1.Improper process application
2.Improper material selection
3.Improper Installation
4.Higher than anticipated temperature
5.Ignoring velocity considerations

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THERMOWELL

SOCKET WELD
WELLS fit all ASA
standard couplings
and flanges are
easy to install and
have a very tight
fit

THREADED WELLS are provided in

one piece construction and have an NPT
Connection.

FLANGED WELLS consist of a

stem welded to an ANSI rated
flange

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THERMOWELL

TEMP

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TEMPERATURE ELEMENT

TEMP

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Element

Types of Temperature element:

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Thermocouples
Infrared radiators
Thermistors

Thermostates
.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Element
Measuring principle-RTD-sensors
Resistive temperature devices capitalize on the fact that the
electrical resistance of a material changes as its
temperature changes.
They are suitable for the measurement of temperatures
between -200 C and approx. 800 C and stand out due to
high measurement accuracy and long-term stability.
The resistance sensor element most frequently used is
a Pt100 which has a nominal value of 100 at 0 C.
As their name indicates, RTDs rely on resistance change in
a metal, with the resistance rising more or less linearly with
temperature

EDWIN SELVARAJ

RTD
Advantages:1.The response time is very fast
2.Comparing T/c RTD will not having drift
problems.
3.Within range RTD is more accurate and
higher senstivity
Disadvantages:1.More expensive than T/c
2.RTD not cabaple of measuring wide range
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Resistive temperature devices capitalize on the fact
that the electrical resistance of a material changes as
its temperature changes.
As their name indicates, RTDs rely on resistance
change in a metal, with the resistance rising more or
less linearly with temperature
Outer Sheath Material
EDWIN SELVARAJ

THERMO COUPLE
Two conductors of different metals are twisted at one end. This
end called hot junction. The other end is open end.
When a circuit is formed by a junction of two dissimilar metals
and the junctions are held at different temperatures, a current will
flow in the circuit caused by the difference in temperature
between the two junctions.
Advantages: 1.Inexpensive
2.Quick Response Time.
3.Self-Powered
4.Multi point sensing
Disadvantages: 1.Non-Linear
2.Low sensitivity
3.Less stable than RTDs
4.Requires T/c extension wire
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Types of thermo couple

THERMOCOUPLE

MATERIAL

EXTENSION WIRE
ISA

MATERIAL

COLOR OF INSULATION

+VE

-VE

SY
M

+VE

-VE

+VE

-VE

OVERALL

Copper

Constantan

Copper

Constantan

Blue

Red

Blue

Iron

Constantan

Iron

Constantan

White

Red

Black

Chromel

Alumel

Chromel

Alumel

Yellow

Red

Yellow

Chromel

Constantan

Chromel

Constantan

Purple

Red

Purple

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Thermo couple Temp Range

THERMOCOUPLE

MATERIAL

EXTENSION WIRE
ISA

MATERIAL

Temp Range

+VE

-VE

SY
M

+VE

-VE

Copper

Constantan

Copper

Constantan

-200 C Deg

350 C Deg

Iron

Constantan

Iron

Constantan

0 C Deg

760 C Deg

Chromel

Alumel

Chromel

Alumel

-200 C Deg

1250 C Deg

Chromel

Constantan

Chromel

Constantan

-200 C Deg

900 C Deg

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Measurement
Resistance bulbs shall be selected in accordance with the following:
Resistance bulbs should be used when the working temperature is between
-200oC and 400oC, and precise measurement is required.
Bulbs shall be fitted with platinum resistance elements. And normally
R0= 100 ohms
Thermistors are based on resistance change in a ceramic semiconductor;
the resistance drops nonlinearly with temperature rise.
Strain Gage: A measuring element for converting force, pressure, tension,
etc., into an electrical signal.
Wheatstone Bridge: A network of four resistances, an emf source, and a
galvanometer connected such that when the four resistances are matched,
the galvanometer will show a zero deflection or "null" reading.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

IR THERMOMETERS
IR Thermometers / pyrometers by
specifically measuring the energy
being radiated from an object in the
0.7 to 20 micron wavelength
range, are subset of radiation
thermometers. These device can
measure this radiation
from a distance. There is no need
direct contact of the object as in the
case of T/C or RTD.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Thermostats
Thermostats are switches which maintain a pre-determined
temperature within certain limits by automatically opening
and closing an electrical contact.
MODE OF OPERATION: Temperature changes in the closed
capillary-tube system lead to changes in the vapor pressure
of the charge. The pressure operates a snap action
electrical contact via a bellows.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Measurement
Fluid-expansion devices:
Typically like household thermometer, generally come in
two main classifications:
- mercury type
- organic-liquid type
Versions employing gas instead of liquid are also available.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Field-Mounted Thermometers
Ranges for field-mounted thermometers shall
be selected such that normal operating
temperature is around 60% of the full scale.

TEMP EL

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TT-

A temperature transmitter is a device that captures a signal from a sensor

such as a thermocouple or RTD, calculates the temperature based on this
signal, and then converts it to a 4-20 mA, FOUNDATION fieldbus, or some
other type of signal for output to a receiving device.

T
T

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature TransmitterParts

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
TYPE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT

LEVEL TRANSMITTER

LEVEL SWITCH

TOPICS

LEVEL-GAUGE GLASS
EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL TRANSMITTER
TYPE OF LEVEL TRANSMITTER
- Differential Pressure
Torque Tube Displacer
- Bubbler Tube
Hydrostatic
Ultrasonic
Nuclear
Guide Wave Radar
Servo / Tank Gauge
Pulse Burst Radar
RF Capacitance
Magnetostrictive
Vibration
Buoyancy
Magnetic Level Indicator

Level
L
E

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Archimedes

Principle of operation:
Principle , that states that a body
immersed in a fluid is buoyed

up by a force equal to the

weight of the displaced fluid.
It operates according to the fully proven liquid displacement and torque tube
principles. A change in the liquid level varies the net weight of the displacer, increasing
or decreasing the load of the torque tube by an amount directly proportional to the
change in liquid level. The subsequent rotation of the torque tube rod is used to modify
the magnetis field around Hall effect sensor, producing signal proportional to level in the
vessel.
It can also function as a local level controller.

LT

EDWIN SELVARAJ

RADAR GAUGE
SERVO GAUGE

A small displacer suspended

by a strong, flexible
measuring wire. This gauge
uses a electrical servo motor
to raise or lower the
displacer
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Level Measurement
Bubbler Type

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Level Tr-Ultrasonic Type

Use of non-contact
instruments
Transmitter
should be
considered for applications
in corrosive toxic highly
viscous slurries & heavy
or irregularly shaped
Top of the Surface bulk materials or where
probes can be damaged
by the process.
The ultrasonic level
metering technology is
based on the principle of
the time required for the
Ultrasonic Waves ultrasonic wave to travel
from the source to the
top surface of the level to
be measured and back.
On the basis of this time,
this device calculates the
level.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Level Measurement
Nuclear Type

Nuclear instruments have a radiation

source and detector. The source
radiates the signal through the vessel to
the detector. The mass in the vessel
absorbs the radiation and blocks a
percentage of it from reaching the
detector.
LI003A

3835 MM
3048 MM

11773 MM
9586 MM

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LI03B
A design involving
nuclear instruments
needs to provide a way
to shield the source, the
ability to lock out the
source, and the posting
of warning signs.

A magnetic gauge is a metal tube with an

internal float magnetically coupled to an
indicator on as scale
on the outside of the tube.

Magnetic Gauges

Magnetic gauges should be considered as

an alternative to glass for flammable,
corrosive, toxic, high pressure, high
temperature, or long visible length service.
The installation of the magnetic level gauge
should be the same as for glass level gauges.
The exception is that the
end connection should be flanged.
Magnetic gauges should not be used for liquids
Containing dirt or suspended solids. Dirt can
cause the float to stick resulting in false
indications. The float in a magnetic gauge
is engineered for a certain range of liquid
densities.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

MAGNETIC GAUGE

A hermetically sealed
float with an internal
magnetic ring is housed in
a non-magnetic float
chamber. The float move
up and down in the
chamber as level rises or
falls. A magnetic highly
visible shuttle or
bargraph indicator
encapsulated in a
hermetically sealed glass
tube, is attached in a
scale housing to the
outside of the float
chamber. It indicates the
level without being in
contact with the process
fluid.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

GAUGE
GLASS

TRANSPARANT-For dark dirty liquids

REFLEX-For clear liquids
Parts:1.Centre Piece
2.Sealing Joint
3.Refles Glass
4.Cushion Joint
5. Cover Plate
6.U-Bolts with nuts

Topics
EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-The float element

suspended in a rode with spring. The
spring will be extended to a known
length, controlled by a mechanical stop to
prevent overstressing. Attached to the
spring is a rod and magnet assembly, free
to move up and down as the spring
extends or contracts within the pressure
tube.
As liquid raises to cover the element, due
to loss of weight causing the spring to
contract, hence the magnet moving
upwards and actuating switch mechanism.
On falling of level the operation is viceversa.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Vertical
float :
A permanent magnet (1) is
linked to switch mechanism
(2). As the float (3) rises
following liquid level, it raises
the attraction the sleeve (4)
into the field of the magnet,
which in turn snaps against
the non-magnetic enclosing
tube (5) releasing the switch
actuating arm and changing
the switch contact state. The
enclosing tube provides a
static seal between the
switch mechanism and the
float. When the level falls the
float pulls the attraction
sleeve down below the
magnetic field. The magnet
swings out to reverse contact
position causing low level
switch actuation.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Float Side

Mounted-Side mount
units employ permanent
magnetic force as the
only link between the
float and the switching
element. As the pivoted
float follows liquid level
changes it moves
attraction sleeve (1) into
or out of the field of a
switch-actuating magnet
(2) causing switch
operation. A nonmagnetic enclosing tube
(3) effectively isolates
the switch mechanism
from the controlled liquid.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Displacement

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Displacement

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Vibration / Fork

The Turning fork is
piezoelectrically energised and
vibrates at its mechanical
resonance frequency appo. 1200
Hz. When the turning fork is
immersed in the product the
frequency changes. The change
is detected by integrated
oscillator and converted into a
switching command.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Capacitive Type

In the detection system is based on
the capacitive principle, where the
probe and vessel wall together form
a capacitor. The area between the
probe and the wall is either filled
with air (vessel empty) or the
material to be measured (vessel
full) according to the product level.
The initial capacitance of an empty
vessel is much smaller than that of
a full vessel, the maximum
capacitance being a function of the
dielectric constant of the material.
This change in capacitance
between the initial and final
capacitance values activates
the switch at a preset level.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

LEVEL SWITCH-Conductive
A low voltage AC signal is applied
between the sensing probe and ground.
The very small current is conducted
between the two when the process
liquid touches the sensing probe. The
current flow is sensed by an electronics
network which actuates the output
relay.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Level Sw

LEVEL SWITCH-PADDLE
EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL VALVE&

ACTUatOR
TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Common Types of Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Common Types of Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Common Types of Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Common Types of Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL VALVE

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ACTUATOR
Rotary Actuator

Q-Turn Actuator

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pneumatic Actuator
The pneumatic actuators
are often simple devices
with a minimum mechanical parts,
used on linear or Q-turn valves.
Sufficient air pressure acts on a
piston or diaphragm to provide
thrust in a linear motion for gate
or globe valves. Alternatively,
the thrust may be mechanically
converted to rotary motion to
operate the Q-turn valves.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Electric Actuator

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Spring Return Actuator

Spring Return
Actuator (ESD)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Rack & Pinion Actuator

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Bonnet & Packing Box

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL VALVE
ACTUATOR

YOKE

I to P
CONVERTOR

AFR

VALVE
POSITIONER

VALVE BODY

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TYPE OF CONTROL VALVES

Diaphragm
Actuated
Rotary
Valve

Piston Type
Actuated
valve
Diaphragm
Actuated
Linear
Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Control Valve Parts

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL VALVE

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Q-Turn Valve Body + Rotary Actuator Assembly

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Butterfly Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Valve Bodies

EDWIN SELVARAJ

DEFINE CV OF A CONTROL VALVE?

Cv is numerically equal to the number of U.S. gallons of water at
60F that will flow through the valve in one minute when the
pressure differential across the valve is one pound per square inch.
Cv varies with both size and style of valve, but provides an index for
comparing liquid capacities of different valves under a standard set
of conditions.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

VALVE PLUGS ACCORDING TO

FLOW CHRACTERISTICS

For blow down and

vent services

For feed streams

services

EDWIN SELVARAJ

For Compressor surge

controls

VALVE FLOW CHRACTERISTICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

LINEAR CHRACTERISTICS
The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the
flow rate is directly proportional to the valve lift (H), at a
constant differential pressure. A linear valve achieves
this by having a linear relationship between the valve lift
and the orifice pass area (see Figure below).

For example, at 40% valve lift, a 40% orifice size

SELVARAJ
allows 40% of the full flow EDWIN
to pass.

EQUAL % CHRACTERISTICS
These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve
lift increases the flow rate by a certain percentage of the previous flow.
The relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow
rate) is not linear but logarithmic.
Table below shows how the change in flow rate alters across the range
of valve lift for the equal percentage valve with a rangeability of 50 and
with a constant differential pressure.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EQUAL % CHRACTERISTICS

CV

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Valve Accessories
1. Air Filter Regulator
2. I/P Transducer
3. Positioner
4. Volume Booster
5. Solenoid
6. Limit / Proximity Switch
7.Position Transmitter
TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

I/P Transducer:
I/P Transducer:
Transducers convert a current signal
to a pneumatic signal. The most
common transducer converts a 4-20
mA electric signal to a 3-15 psig
pneumatic signal.

Valve Access
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Volume Booster
Volume Boosters are used on throttling control valves to
provide fast stroking action with large input signal
changes. At the same time, the flow boosters allow normal
Positioner air flow (and normal actuation) with small
changes in the Positioner input signal. Depending on
actuator size, packing set and the number used, boosters
can decrease valve stroking times up to 90 percent.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Valve Acces

Air Filter Regulator

A pressure reducing regulator maintains a desired reduced outlet
pressure while providing the required fluid flow to satisfy a
downstream demand. The pressure which the regulator maintains is
the outlet pressure setting (setpoint) of the regulator. A downstream
pressure increase above the outlet pressure setting moves the
diaphragm assembly off the stem
venting the excess pressure through a
hole drilled or tapped in the spring case.

Valve Access

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Valve Positioner

The input signal from the control

device is connected to the bellows.
When the input signal increases the
bellows expands and moves the beam
The beam pivots about the input axis
moving the flapper closer the nozzle.
The nozzle pressure increases and
through the relay action increases the
output pressure to the actuator. The

pressure increases in the actuator

causes the stem move downward. Stem
movement is fed back to the beam by
means of the cam. As the cam rotates
the beam pivots about the feedback
axis to move the flapper slightly away
from the nozzle. The nozzle pressure
decreases, in turn pressure to the
actuator reduced. This process
continues until the equilibrium is reached.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Digital Valve Controller

Valve Ass
EDWIN SELVARAJ

SOLENOID VALVE
are used wherever fluid flow
has to be controlled
automatically.
SOV are control units, when
electrically energized or deenergized, either shut-off or
allow fluid to flow.
The actuator takes the form of
an electromagnet. When
energized a magnetic field
builds up which pulls a plunger
or pivoted armature against
action of a spring. When deenergized plunger or pivoted
armature is returned to its
original position by the spring
action.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Valve Acces

Proximity / Limit Switch

Limit switch:Limit switches are contact type
which are used to indicate the
valve position whether open or
close
Proximity switch:a non-contact type.

Valve Acces
Valve Acces

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Proximity / Limit Switch

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Position Transmitter

Valve Acces

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Recorders
For all Applications in Process Engineering

Standards/certificates
CE marking
NAMUR NE
KTA 3503

The recorder with text

and
front-mounted PC
interface
The low-cost
multipoint
recorder with 6
channels

The multifunctional unit

with backlit display

EDWIN SELVARAJ

The communicative
unit with RS 485
interface

Line Recorders with

Alphanumeric Output
1, 2, 3 channels, DC U/I,
or DC U/I, TC, RTD, R
Two additional digital
channels
Grid-free chart (LA)
Input/output module
(also relay)
Pen-Lift
EDWIN SELVARAJ

New Multipoint Recorder with

Backlit Display
6 channels, DC U/I, TC
Backlit display
Two additional digital channels
Grid-free chart
Input/output module
(also relay)
Remote control (infrared)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Simple Programming with SIPROM

Software SIPROM R for
SIREC LA/PA
SIREC PU
VARIOGRAPH

Uniform operating concept

Indication
of
current
measuring data in online
operation
Printout of parameter data
and instrument tag data
EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CONTROL
LOOP

TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL LOOP

Primary Element: The measuring element that quantitatively converts

the measured variable energy into a form suitable for measurement.
Note: The sensing portion is the primary element for transmitters that
do not have external primary elements.

Transmitter: A transducer which responds to a measured variable by

means of a sensing element, and converts it to a standardized
transmission signal which is a function only of the measured variable.

Controlled Variable: A variable the value of which is sensed to

originate a feedback signal. (Also known as the process variable.)

Controller: A device which operates automatically to regulate a

controlled variable.

Controller Algorithm (PID): A mathematical representation of the

control action to be performed.

Set Point: An input variable which sets the desired value of the
controlled variable.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL LOOP

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL LOOP
Error
In process instrumentation, the algebraic difference between the real
value and ideal value of the measured signal. It is the quantity which
when algebraically subtracted from the indicated signal gives the ideal
value.
Manipulated Variable
A quantity or condition which is varied as a function of the algebraic
error signal so as to cause a change to the value of the directly
controlled variable.
Feedback Control
Control action in which a measured variable is compared to its desired
value to produce an actuating error signal which is acted upon in such a
way as to reduce the magnitude of the error.
Cascade Control
Control in which the output of one controller is introduced as the set
point for another controller.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROL LOOP
Proportioning Band: A temperature band expressed in degrees within which a
temperature controller's time proportioning function is active.
Proportioning Control plus Derivative Function: A time proportioning controller
with derivative function. The derivative function senses the rate at which a system's
temperature is either increasing or decreasing and adjusts the cycle time of the
controller to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
Proportioning Control plus Integral: A two-mode controller with time
proportioning and integral (auto reset) action. The integral function automatically
adjusts the temperature at which a system has stabilized back to the set point
temperature, thereby eliminating droop in the system.
Proportioning Control with Integral and Derivative Functions: Three mode
PID controller. A time proportioning controller with integral and derivative functions.
The integral function automatically adjusts the system temperature to the set point
temperature to eliminate droop due to the time proportioning function. The
derivative function senses the rate of rise or fall of the system temperature and
automatically adjusts the cycle time of the controller to minimize overshoot or
undershoot.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOPS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOPS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

MASS FLOW CONTROL LOOP

LOOP

EDWIN SELVARAJ

What is HART?

HART ("Highway Addressable Remote Transducer") is a

communication protocol designed for industrial process
measurement and control applications.
It's called a hybrid protocol because it combines analog
and digital communication.
It can communicate a single variable using a 4-20 ma
analog signal, while also communicating added
information on a digital signal. The digital information
is carried by a low-level modulation superimposed on
the standard 4-to-20 mA current loop.
The digital signal does not affect the analog reading
because it's removed from the analog signal by
standard filtering techniques.
TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Transmitters - Calibration
How to use
HART?

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Calibration: The process of adjusting an instrument or compiling a deviation chart so
that its reading can be correlated to the actual value being measured.
Accuracy: The closeness of an indication or reading of a measurement device to the
actual value of the quantity being measured. Usually expressed as percent of full
scale.
Error: The difference between the value indicated by the transducer and the true
value of the measurand being sensed. Usually expressed in percent of full scale
output.
Repeatability: The ability of a transducer to reproduce output readings when the
same measurand value is applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and
in the same direction. Repeatability is expressed as the maximum difference
between output readings.
Range: Those values over which a transducer is intended to measure, specified by
its upper and lower limits.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Span: The difference between the upper and lower limits of a range expressed in
the same units as the range.
Rangeability: The ratio of the maximum flowrate to the minimum flowrate of a
meter.
Duplex Wire: A pair of wires insulated from each other and with an outer jacket of
insulation around the inner insulated pair.
Excitation: The external application of electrical voltage current applied to a
transducer for normal operation.
Explosion-proof Enclosure: An enclosure that can withstand an explosion of
gases within it and prevent the explosion of gases surrounding it due to sparks,
flashes or the explosion of the container itself, and maintain an external
temperature which will not ignite the surrounding gases.
Intrinsically Safe: An instrument which will not produce any spark or thermal
effects under normal or abnormal conditions that will ignite a specified gas mixture.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Field Instrument

Output Signal
generated by

Check Points

Remarks

D/P Instrument,
Low Pressure
Instrument

Hand operated air

0, 50, 100% of span,
pump or regulated air, both increasing and
and manometer or
decreasing
precision type test
indicator

Check output signal

against receiver
instrument indication

Variable Area Meter

type Transmitter

Transmitting
mechanism actuated
by hand

Check output signal

against receiver
instrument indication

Pressure Instrument

Dead weight tester, or 0, 50, 100% of span,

regulated air and
both increasing and
precision type test
decreasing
indicator

Check output signal

against receiver
instrument indication

Pressure Switch

Dead weight tester, or Set point only &

regulated air and
differential
precision type test
indicator

Check alarm light,

solenoid valve,
sequence and
interlock etc.

0,50,100% of span,
both increasing and
decreasing

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Field Instrument

Output Signal
generated by

Check Points

Remarks

Pressure Gauge, Draft ----Gauge

Atm. Pressure

-----

Field Temperature
Transmitter
(mV/E, R/E etc.)

mV source, resistance
source and precision
type test indicator

0, 50, 100% of span

both increasing and
decreasing

Check output signal

against receiver
instrument indication

Thermometer

Temperature bath

Amb. Temperature
Thermometer shall be
checked with a temp.
bath and a standard
thermometer.

------

Displacer Type Level

Instrument

Immersing the
displacer in water

0,50, 100% of span

both increasing and
decreasing

Check output signal

against receiver
instrument indication

Ball Float Type Level

Actuating the switch

mechanically

-----

Check alarm light,

solenoid valve,
sequence and
interlock, etc.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
Field Instrument

Output Signal
generated by

Check Points

Remarks

Tank Gauge

Raising the float

mechanically or
electrically

(1) Zero point

(2) Smooth flat
movement

(1) Check receiver

instrument indication
(2) Prior to checking, the
tank level must be
confirmed as zero

Control Valve
(Controller Output)

Controller manual
output

0, 50, 100% of
the valve stroke,
both increasing
and decreasing

(1) Check the valve stroke

against the travel indicator
(2) Check the valve action
at air failure
(3) Check that the valve
accessories, limit switch,
AFR, function correctly.
(4) Confirm the closing
point of control valve stroke
(5) Check alarm light,
solenoid valve, sequence
and interlock etc.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT PROCESS
CONNECTIONS
TYPE

PROCESS CONNECTIONS / SIZE

Pneumatic Signals

NPT 1/4 in female / 6mm / 8 mm

Electronic Signals
(Weatherproof or Explosion proof

NPT 1/2 in female

Differential Pressure Instruments

(Pressure Connection)

NPT in female
Diaphragm 2 or 3 in; Flanged

Thermowell

Flanged
Welded

Pressure Instruments
Pressure gauges (Bourdon)
Draft Gauges

General Service

1 in

High Velocity Service

1 1/2 in

General Service

1 in

High Velocity Service

1 1/2 in

Screwed

3/4 in (male)

Vessel

2 in

---

NPT 1/2 in female

Diaphragm

2 Flanged

---

NPT 1/2 in female

Diaphragm

2 Flanged

EDWIN SELVARAJ

NPT 1/4 in female

INSTRUMENT PROCESS
CONNECTIONS
TYPE
Level Instruments

PROCESS CONNECTIONS / SIZE

Flange Type
Differential
Pressure
Instrument

Diaphragm

DP Transmitters

Displacer

NPT 1/2 in female

External
Internal

Gauge Glass

INST CAL

2 Flanged

2 Flange
4 Flange
3/4 in

EDWIN SELVARAJ

PRESSURE REGULATORS
TOPICS
Topics

EDWIN SELVARAJ

PRESSURE REGULATORS

Specific Regulator Types

Pressure reducing regulators
Backpressure regulators
Pressure switching regulators
Vacuum regulators and breakers
Blanketing Gas Regulator

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pressure Reducing
Regulators
A pressure reducing regulator maintains a desired
reduced outlet pressure while providing the
required fluid flow to satisfy a downstream
demand. The pressure which the regulator
maintains is the outlet pressure setting (setpoint)
of the regulator.
The two types Regulators
1. Direct-Operated (also called Self-Operated)
2. Pilot-Operated

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Direct-Operated (Self-Operated)
Regulators

In operation, a direct-operated, pressure reducing regulator

senses the downstream pressure through either internal
pressure registration or an external control line. This
downstream pressure opposes a spring which moves the
diaphragm and valve plug to change the size of the flow path
through the regulator.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Pilot-Operated Regulators
Pilot-operated regulators are preferred for where precise pressure
control is required. This is two path control system. In two-path
control, the main valve diaphragm responds quickly to downstream
pressure changes, causing an immediate correction in the main valve
plug position. At the same time, the pilot diaphragm diverts some of
the reduced inlet pressure to the other side of the main valve
diaphragm to control the final positioning of the main valve plug.
Two-path control results in fast response.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Vacuum Regulators and

Breakers
Vacuum regulators and vacuum breakers are devices
used to control vacuum.
A vacuum regulator maintains a constant
vacuum at the regulator inlet with a higher vacuum
connected to the outlet. During operation, a vacuum
regulator remains closed until a vacuum decrease (a
rise in absolute pressure) exceeds the spring setting
and opens the valve disk.
A vacuum breaker
prevents a vacuum from exceeding a specified value.
During operation, a vacuum breaker remains closed
until an increase in vacuum (a decrease in absolute
pressure) exceeds the spring setting and opens the
valve disk.
Regulator
R

EDWIN SELVARAJ

BLANKETING GAS REGULATOR

EDWIN SELVARAJ

BLANKETING GAS REGULATOR

Blanketing is a process used to maintain a

gas blanket in the vapor space of a
pressure tight-liquid storage vessel. The
gas blanketing regulator reduces a high
pressure inert gas to maintain a positive
low pressure of blanket gas over a stored
liquid while liquid is being pumped out of
the tank. A positive tank pressure
prevents outside air from entering the
vessel preventing contamination and
reducing the possibility of atmospheric
pressure collapsing the vessel.
Regu
Reg

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety Relief Valve

TOPICS
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Definitions of Safety/Relief Valves

Safety Valve is a direct-pressure actuated
pressure relieving valve characterized by a
pop action and suitable for Vapor or Gas
applications (discharges to atmosphere)
Relief Valve is a direct-pressure actuated
pressure relieving valve with no pop action
and usually with no definite blow-down or reclosure point. Used primarily for liquid service
(discharges to drain)
Safety-Relief Valve combination of the
above (where would it discharge?)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

 Typical Safety and Relief Valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Explain the Operating Principles

of Safety Valves
Safety valves are held shut by means of a Steel
spring or Torsion bar acting on the valve Disc so
as to keep it on its Seat
When the Boiler pressure reaches the pressure at
which the valve is set (popping pressure), the disc
will be raised slightly from its seat and steam will begin
to escape through Ports or Holes and collect under
the Lip
The escaping steam provides an additional upward
force and the valve then pops open

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety Valve Parts

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 The Safety or Relief valve is a positive protection

device which prevents the Boiler or other pressure
vessels from exceeding that for which the vessel was
designed
The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Power Boilers code states that each boiler shall have at
least one safety valve or safety relief valve and if the
boiler has more than 47m2 of water heating surface,
or if elec-tric, and it has a power input of more than
500 kw, then it shall have two or more safety valves or
relief valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 The 6% Rule:
- The safety valve must be able to discharge all
of the steam produced by the Boiler without
allowing the pressure to rise more than 6%
above the highest pressure at which any
valve is set and in no case more than 6%
above the maximum allowable working
pressure of the Boiler
- Safety Valve Capacity:
- The capacity of a particular design of safety
valve is determined by means of tests which set
the lift, popping and blow down pressures
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety/Relief Valve Types:

1. Huddling Chamber Safety Valve:
- Safety valves are held shut by means of a
steel spring or torsion bar acting on the
valve disc so as to keep it on its seat
- When the Boiler pressure reaches the pressure
at which the valve is set (popping pressure),
the disc will be raised slightly from its seat and
steam will begin to escape through Bleed
holes
- The escaping steam from the Bleed holes
provides an additional upward force on the Lip
of the disc and the valve then pops open
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Huddling Chamber Safety Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 2. Power - Operated Relief Valves:

- A Power-operated relief valve as defined by
ASME, is one whose movements to open or
close are fully controlled by a source of power
(electricity, air/pneumatic, steam or hydraulic).
The valve may be operated manually or
automatically by remote control or device
- On conventional type Boilers, this type cannot
be used as a substitute for regular Safety
or Relief valves, but can be used in
conjunction with them (the next slide explains
why)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

This type of Relief valve has a control station

switch which has three positions:
1. Automatic will open when preset high
pressure setting is reached and re-seat itself
closed when pressure has reduced to the
preset low pressure
2. Manual - the valve opens regardless of
pressure
3. Off the relief valve will stay closed no
matter what (this is why this type of relief
valve cannot be used solely on the Boiler
or any other pressure vessel)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Installation and Operation of Safety

Valves

- A Safety valve or Relief valve must be connected

to the Boiler independent of any other connection

and attached as close to the Boiler as possible in an
upright position with the spindle vertical
- No valve of any type shall be placed between the
Safety valve or Relief valve and the Boiler, or the
discharge pipe of the Safety valve or Relief
valve
- The Safety/Relief valve discharge pipe shall not
be smaller than the Safety/Relief valve outlet and
the discharge pipe connection should be short and
straight as possible
EDWIN SELVARAJ

pressure
on the
Each valve must be equipped with gravity drains in
the discharge pipe and the casing of the valve
- To insure that the valve is not stuck in the closed
position, each Safety/Relief valve shall have a lifting
device or handle by which the valve disc can be lifted
from its seat (there
must be 75% of full working Boiler)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Proper Safety Valve Installation

Proper (left) and Incorrect (right)

Installation

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 Safety Valve Setting:

- The difference between the pressure at which the
valve opens and the pressure at which the valve
closes (by the spring tension), is called the
Blowdown
- The Blowdown, according to ASME section 1, PG72.1, must be a minimum of 14 kPa, and the
maximum Blowdown will allow the safety valve to close
at a pressure not lower than 96% of the set pressure
of the Safety valve
* NOTE: Play Video of Safety Valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety Relief Valve-Parts

Pr Rel
Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ANALYTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
ANALYZER
BOD
pH
CONDUCTIVITY
MOISTURE / DEWPOINT
OXYGEN
TURBIDITY
TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD)
What is Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ?
BOD is an empirical analysis, that is performed in waste waters.
This analysis determines the amount of oxygen expressed in PPM
that micro-organisms consume from water when break down
organic matter.
BOD measures the rate of oxygen uptake by micro-organisms in a
sample of water at a temperature of 20C.
Notes:
Air can be regarded as having constant percentage of O2.
Wherever air comes in contact with water, the oxygen in the air
will dissolve in the water. The amount of oxygen that dissolves
depends on-the water temperature, the air pressure and the salt
contents of water.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Introduction of pH
-pH is a unit of measure which

describes the degree of

acidity or alkalinity of a
solution. It is measured on a
scale of 0-14. The term pH is
derived from p, the
mathematical symbol of the
negative logarithm, and H
the chemical symbol of
Hydrogen. The formal
definitionof pH is the negative
logarithm of the Hydrogen ion
activity.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH Electrodes
A pH having two electrode;- an measuring
electrode and a reference electrode. Most
applications today use a combination electrode
with both electrode in one body.
When the two electrodes are immersed in a
solution a galvanic cell is established. The
response of measuring electrode is the voltage
developed between the inside and outside of the
membrane. This voltage is proportional to the
difference in pH in the inner solution and the
sample.
pH = -log[H+]

ANALYZER
EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

pH

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity
Measurement

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ANALYZER-CONDUCTIVITY

Conductivity is the ability of a solution to conduct

electric current. The principle by which
instruments measures conductivity is simple two plates (cells) are placed in the sample, a
potential is applied across the plates and the
current is measured. Generally, the potential is
in the form of a sine wave.

ANALYZER
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Definitions
Conductivity requires
the presence of charged
particles (ions) in
solution, to carry the
electrical current

AC

HPW4

+
++

++

++
+
+

The conductivity measurement

uses an AC signal so that the
ions do not polarize to the
measuring plates.
(Ex.: Sodium & Chloride ions)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Definitions

AC

Conductivity:
Property of a solution
that represents the
ability to conduct
electricity
Resistivity:
Reciprocal of Conductivity
Resistivity = 1/Conductivity

HPW3

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Definitions
Something has to be in the solution that carries the current
and completes the circuit to have Conductivity.
The something is positively and negatively charged
atoms, called ions. Sodium (+) and Chloride (-) are typical
examples of ions.
For the Conductivity measurement, the instrument outputs
an alternating square-wave signal on the DRIVE electrode
of the sensor. The sensors RECEIVE electrode will pick-up
the signal that is carried through the solution, by the ions.
If a lot of free ions are available to get the majority of the
signal from the drive to the receive electrode, then the
solution is conductive and the Conductivity reading is high.
If there are very few ions in solution, then little of the
signal will reach the receive electrode and the Conductivity
reading will be low.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Typical Conductivity Values

ohms-cm

Resistivity Range
100 meg

10 meg

0.01

0.1

Ultra pure
water

1000k

10

Distilled
Water

Conductivity Range

100k

10k

100

1000

1000

Raw
Water

Microsiemens/cm

0.05%
NaCl

100

10

10k

100k

Sea
Water

Range of Measurement
Pure Water, 0.055 uS/cm (18.3 Meg ohms)
Concentrated Acids, Bases and Salts, > 1,000,000 uS/cm
Technologies Available
Electrode
Inductive (also known as Electrodeless and Toroidal)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

1000k

30%
H2SO4

Conductivity Measurements
Conductivity responds to all electrolytes in solution
Conductivity can be used to measure the concentration
of a particular electrolyte in a pure solution
Conductivity can help determine the concentration of
the dominant electrolyte in the presence of other
electrolytes
Typical uses for Conductivity Analyzers

General Concentration Measurement and Control.

Control Dilution of Pure Solutions and Mixtures.
Leak Detection
Interface Detection
Water Quality

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity
Measurements
Conductivity, unlike pH, is a non-specific measurement
because it responds to any and all electrolytes in a solution.
Nonetheless, it can be used to measure the concentration
of a specific electrolyte under certain conditions:
There must be a measurable change in conductivity over
the concentration range to be measured. While
conductivity can alternately increase and decrease with
increasing concentration in strong solutions, concentrations
measurements can only be made in ranges, where
conductivity strictly increases or decreases.
In addition to specific concentration measurements,
conductivity can be used for the monitoring and control of
dilutions, the detection of a leak of a more conductive
solution into a less conductive solution.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Cell Constant

AC

Cell Constant:

Defined as the ratio of the

distance separated, over
the area of the plates
Basic 1.0/cm Cell Constant:
1.0 cm = 1.0
1.0cm2
cm

d
d = 1 centimeter
HPW6

Determines how much signal

is received by the analyzer
for a solutions given
conductivity
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Cell Constant
What are the mysteries behind this important term?
First of all, Cell Constants have very funny units attached to
them per cm. Once you realize that a cell constant is the
ratio of how far the sensor electrodes are separated,
divided by the area of the electrode plates, then the per
cm units make some sense.
Cell Constants are an area of confusion for many people.
Not all cell constants can be calculated this easy, due to the
complex geometry of some electrodes. It is typical in hipurity measurements for the electrodes to be in the form of
concentric cylinders, as compared to flat plates.
The function of the cell constant is to optimize how much
input signal is being provided to the analyzer for a
solutions given conductivity.
Matching the proper cell constant to the solutions
conductivity range will ensure that the analyzer can
properly condition and process the input signal.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Cell Constant
Conductance Meter

5.00
Cell
Constant
2.0

AC

Solution
Conductivity
10.00
HPW7

Cell Constant:

Relates the conductivity

of the solution to the
conductance read by the
instrument
Conductance X Cell Constant =
Conductivity

Factor used as a
multiplier for the
conductivity instrument
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Cell Constant
Older conductivity instrumentation did not take the cell
constant into account, and you would have to multiply the
instrument reading by the cell constant to arrive at the
conductivity of the solution. In this way, the cell constant is
a multiplier for the conductivity instrument.
Modern instrumentation can account for the cell constant
and display the resultant conductivity reading of the
solution. However, you still must be careful to match the
appropriate cell constant with the analyzer.
Some instruments are designed to work with only a specific
cell constant. If a sensor with an improper cell constant is
attached to the analyzer, then the readings will be
erroneous. Some instruments can use various cell
constants, but you must still program the instrument for
the corresponding cell constant used. Finally, some
advanced instrumentation uses smart sensors that tell the
analyzer its cell constant and calibration factor.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Cell Constant
Cell Constants vary above and below 1.0/cm
They optimize accuracy within a specific range
Typically, the higher the Cell Constant; the higher
the conductivity range

HPW8

Cell
Constant
0.01/cm

Cell
Constant
0.1/cm

Cell
Constant
1.0/cm

0-10uS/cm
Ultrapure
Distillation

50-500uS/cm
Deionized
Reverse
Osmosis

500-5000uS/cm
Raw Water

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Toroidal
Conductivity
Constant
3.0/cm
2-20mS/cm
Chemical
Control

Cell Constant

Cell constants are used to maximize the accuracy of the

conductivity reading in a specific range of measurement.
Basically, the higher the cell constant, the higher the conductivity
range to be measured.
For high purity water in applications like Semiconductor, Power
and Pharmaceuticals, it is important to use the lowest cell constant
possible, which is 0.01/cm. Not all manufacturers make this range
of cell, some stop at 0.1/cm. However, to maximize the accuracy
at the ultrapure water range, the 0.01/cm cell constant is
preferred.
For applications where the water is not quite as pure (50500uS/cm) such as, deionization trains and reverse osmosis skids,
then the 0.1uS/cm cell constant is a good choice.
For common conductivity ranges of raw waters and mixtures in the
hundreds to the thousands of microsiemens, then the 1.0/cm cell
constant should be used.
Finally, for concentrated chemicals and brine solutions
applications, it is important to use higher cell constants, such as 510/cm, or specialized sensors like 4-electrode or Toroidal sensors.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Model 400
Sensor cylinder construction
Geometric shapes differs but cell constant
reminds true

Operating Parameters:
are cell constant dependant
design dependant

Temperature Compensation:
Pt 1000 Standard
Optional Pt-100

Process Connection
3/4 inch MNPT

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ENDURANCE- Contacting Sensors

Configurations:
Screw-In...Model 400/401
Retractable...Model 402
Sanitary...Model 403
Low Flow Cell...Model 404
Low Conductivity Measurement:
Ultrapure to Surface Water
Cell Constants of 0.01/cm,
0.1/cm and 1.0/cm
High Conductivity Measurement:
10.0 and 4 electrode (401)
USE TOROIDAL IF POSSIBLE

400

401

402

403

404

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Effects on Conductivity

Temperature has drastic effects on conductivity measurements and is

typically compensated for
Each conductive solution has its own set of concentration vs
temperature curves
Typical Temperature slopes (linear)
Acids:
1.0 to 1.6% / oC
Bases:
1.8 to 2.2% / oC
Salts:
2.2 to 3.0% / oC
Natural Waters:
2.0% / oC
0-5% / oC Temperature slope adjustment, in our instruments, provides
greater accuracy in chemical concentration control
Specific common temperature curves are programmed into specialized
percent concentration analyzers for higher accuracy and ease of use
for concentration measurements
Low conductivity measurements (less than 10 microSiemens/cm)
require special temperature compensation for accuracy

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Slope for Low

Conductivity Water
TEMPERATURE SLOPE ( % PER DEG C )

26
PURE WATER

24
22
20
18
16

0.1 microS/cm

14
12
10
8
6
4

1.0 microS/cm

2
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

TEMPERATURE DEGREE C

EDWIN SELVARAJ

90

100

Temperature Compensation
CATION Applications require an additional
special temperature compensation algorithm
H+
FLOW
Na+

Na+
OH

Mg+

Feed Water

H+-H+
Na+-H+--H+
Mg+Resin Beads

H+

CATION Bed

H+

H+
OH

H+

H+

Product Water

CATIONS displace Hydrogen Ions on the resin

beads; causing Product Water to be more acidic
HPW12

CATION: Positively charged atoms

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Temperature Compensation
CATION 0.1S/cm vs.
High-Purity 0.1 S/cm

0.9

conductivity (uS)

0.8
0.7

Cation

0.6
0.5

HiPurity

0.4
0.3
0.2

CATION

0.1

High-Purity

0
0

25

50

75

Temperature C:

CATION Water is more

acidic than equivalent
High-Purity Water;
therefore, it has a
different temperature
behavior
All New Rosemount
Instruments include CATION
temperature compensation

100

EDWIN SELVARAJ
HPW13

Conductivity Analyzers and

Transmitters

Contacting Conductivity
Electrodes Exposed to
the Measured Solution
Affected by Dirty or
Corrosive Process
Streams

Inductive Conductivity
No Electrodes Exposed
to the Measured Solution
Relatively Unaffected by
Dirty or Corrosive
Process Streams

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Principle of Operation
Toroidal Conductivity

Electrodes do not contact the process stream

Two toroidal wound coils
Drive coil is energized by > 20Kz
In turn inducing an Alternating Current in to
the liquid
Induced current in the solution picked up by
second coil
Induced current in second coil is DIRECTLY
proportional to the solution Conductivity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Principle of Operation
Toroidal Conductivity Sensor
Sample
Induced Current dependent
on the Conductivity of the
Sample

Input Voltage to Coil

Drive Coil

Pick-up Coil

Sample

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Toroidal Sensors

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Toroidal Sensors

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Model 228 Toroidal Sensor

Common Applications

High Conductivity
Suspended Solids Content
% Concentration

Operating Parameters

designed for coating application

Harsh environments

Recommended Measurement
Ranges:

250 uS/cm - 2,000,000 uS/cm

*Dependent on Instrument Selection

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Toroidal Sensors create a

magnetic flux around
A Toroidal sensor creates
a magnetic flux around
the sensor about the size
of a base ball (cricket ball)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Toroidal Sensor simulation

Due the nature of Toroidal measurement it is difficult to simulate an
input directly into the analyzer.
The best thing to do is to test the entire loop (sensor and
transmitter). To simulate an input place a resistance through the
Toroidal sensor, calculate the reading using the formulas, and
verifying the actual reading matches the calculated reading. Use
more then one resistance to confirm the loop works correctly
If it does not work, perform a continuity test on each of the coils. If
the continuity test fails, cut about 30 millimeters off the back end of
the cable and retest. If the continuity test passes, then replace the
sensor with a known good sensor and retest with resistors.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Check coil continuity

2.0
ohms

If the loop does not react to a resistance

through the Toroidal sensor remove the
sensor from the analyzer and check for
continuity of the drive (2 ohms) and receive
(2 ohms) coils. Make sure there is no
continuity between the two coils.

If the coils are open cut off about 10 millimeters of cable

and re-check for continuity. Continue to cut cable until
continuity is established. Re-terminate and rewire sensor
to the analyzer and check calibration with resistors.
Topics

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Solution
simulation
A Toroidal signal can not be simulated
10.0
mS/cm
10.0 mS/cm

directly into the analyzer with resistors.

A loop check must be performed where
the Toroidal sensor and analyzer are
wired together and a closed resistance is
threaded through the Toroidal sensors
hole.

Nominal cell constant is 3.0

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ENDURANCE - Model 404

Low Flow Cell
Common Applications
Applications Where Low Flow Rates Are
Present, Typically Ultra Pure Water

Available in Two Cell Constants For Use

Up To 2000 uS/cm
.01 uS/cm
0.1 uS/cm

Material of construction
Hot temp use SST
for cooler processes use PVC
Sensor must be calibrated with flow cell
because outer electrode is built into the
walls of the flow cel

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Troubleshooting a Conductivity loop

Conductivity measurement is comprised of these
distinct components.
The sensor
A connecting cable (may be a VP connector)
The Process
An analyzer or transmitter
Power source

EDWIN SELVARAJ

How Conductivity measurement is made

The conductivity sensor does not make an electro-chemical reaction like
pH and amperometric sensors do, but acts as a deliverer and receiver of a
square wave signal generated at the analyzer.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

How Conductivity measurement is made

The conductivity sensor does not make an electro-chemical reaction
like pH and amperometric sensors do, but acts as a deliverer and
receiver of a square wave signal generated at the analyzer.
The amplitude of the returning square wave signal is processed
with the temperature signal in the analyzer, and the conductivity of
the solution is displayed locally.

218 uS/cm

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Isolation steps

Isolation of the problem can be done in 4 steps

1st, remove the sensor from the process and place it in a known solution
This eliminates any process-related interference
Ground Loops
Verifies the loop is working correctly
2nd, remove the sensor and simulate an input
Verifies that the analyzer is working correctly
3rd, remove the analyzer from its mounted position
this eliminates ground loops caused by faulty wiring and poor earth
grounding
4th, remove the analyzer from the factory floor and place on a bench
this verifies possible power related issues
it also points to possible communication problems
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Substituting a sensors
signal
If the source of problem is not process
related
simulate an input in to analyzer
simulating an input signal confirms analyzer status
determine signal needed
use ohms law to predict input signal

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Clarity II
Turbidimeter
ANALYZER

EDWIN SELVARAJ

What is Turbidity?
Definition
Expression of the optical property that causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight
lines through the sample.
The relative clearness of water.

Explanation
Not a direct measure of suspended solids in water, but a
determination of the scattering effect such solids have on
light.
Color has an adverse effect on reading.
Bubbles effect reading.
A sudden change in turbidity could indicate a change in your
process.

Measurement
Unit of Measurement: Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THEORY-TURBIDIMETER
During the early 1900s, the first instrument to
make a turbidity measurement was referred to as
the Jack Candle Turbidimeter, and consisted of a
candle and a glass tube calibrated to equivalent
ppm suspended silica turbidity.
In the 1930s, a white light bulb and a photo
detector was used to monitor the intensity of light
scattered at 90.
Turbidity is the measure of the amount of light
scattered by particles in a sample. A beam of
light passes through a sample containing
suspended particles. The particles interact with
the light and scatter the light. A detector
measures the intensity of the scattered light.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Turbidity vs. Total Suspended

Solids

Turbidity is not the same as total suspended

solids (TSS).
Both turbidity and TSS are defined by the method used to measure
them.
TSS is a gravimetric measurement; it depends on the total mass of
filterable material in the sample.
Turbidity is an optical measurement; it depends on the number of
particles in the sample and their shape and size.

100 mg of solid
particles in 1 L
TSS is 100 mg/L.
Turbidity has
a certain value

Cut each particle

in half

EDWIN SELVARAJ

100 mg of solid
particles in 1 L
TSS is 100 mg/L.
Turbidity is
different: more
particles and
smaller size.

Clarity II Online Turbidimeter

System

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Turbidity Theory - Basic

NephelometerLight Scattered
Light
Source

by Particles

Transmitted
Light
Scattered
Light at 90

Detector
Turbidity is the measure of the amount of light scattered by
particles in a sample. A beam of light passes through a sample
containing suspended particles. The particles interact with the
light and scatter the light. A detector at 90 measures the
intensity of the scattered light.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Clarity II Online Turbidimeter

Clarity II enhancements:
- Pre-mounted Clarity II turbidity loop on a panel
- High pressure, flow-through chamber - Special
- Custom Dry Cal standard: AMCO clear polymer beads
- Sensor and chamber improvements as needed

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Plug and Plumb System: Pre-mounted analyzer, sensor(s) and

debubbler/measuring chamber mounted on an ABS back plate.

Installation: Plug and Plumb

Molded
Debubbler and
Measuring
Chamber

Analyzer
Quick
Disconnect
Cable

Dry Check
Cup

Calibration Cup

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Sensor Operation: Light

Source and Detector

Light Source

Particles
Detector
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Online Turbidimeter
How is the Clarity II turbidity measurement
made?
A detailed animation of the sensor optics shows a
light source beam (blue color), particles floating
around in the liquid medium inside the measuring
chamber, and the detector (red color).
The beam of light passes through the sample
containing particles. The particles interact with
the light and scatter the light. The detector
measures the intensity of the scattered light.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Fouling

Suspended matter in the sample coats the photodiode window.

The coating blocks the light, so less light falls on the photodiode.
Less light falling on the photodiode means a lower apparent turbidity
reading.
turbidity

turbidity

photodiode

photodiode

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Lamp aging

As lamp ages, light intensity decreases. Therefore, the amount of scattered

light decreases even though number of particles remains constant.
NEW LAMP

turbidity

OLD LAMP

turbidity

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Lamp diagnostics
Light Scattered
by Particles

Light
Source
Intensity
detector

Transmitted
Light
Scattered
Light at 90

Voltage
Feedback
Current
regulator

Turbidity

Detector

Light Power
Source

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Lamp diagnostics
Light
Source

Lamp mid range voltage

1400mV +/- 200mV

Intensity
detector

Maximum current
370mA
Weak Lamp voltage (replace the lamp)
Less then 1250mV

Voltage
Feedback
Current
regulator

ANALYZER

EPA = Lamp
Lamp feed back voltage must be between
1200mV and 1600mV

Light Power
Source

ISO = LED
LED feedback voltage
2000mV +/- 200mV
Target current
10mA
A light intensity detector built into lamp board
automatically increases the current to the lamp
keeping the light intensity within specs. If the
detected lamp intensity is below specifications that
analyzer will blink Lamp calibration needed.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Analyzer-Moisture
Moisture analyzer used
to measure moisture
contents in a process gas.
In the operating mode sensor is
alternately exposed to the sample
gas and dry reference gas. A dry
reference gas is produced by
passing portion of the sample
gas through the dryer to
remove any moisture present.
The difference in resonant frequency
of the sensor, as measured when
exposed to each of the two gas
streams, is a function of moisture
content of the sample gas.
Thus, the moisture concentration of
the sample gas is determined from
this frequency.

ANALYZER
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Analyzer-O2-Zirconia

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Analyzer-O2-Zirconia

Anal

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FIRE & GAS DETECTOR1.GAS

2.HEAT

TOPICS
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Detector-Gas
Gas sensors interact with a gas to initiate the
measurement of its concentration. The gas
sensor then provides output to a gas
instrument to display the measurements.
Important measurement specifications to
consider when looking for gas sensors include
the response time, the distance, and the flow
rate. The response time is the amount of time
required from the initial contact with the gas
to the sensors processing of the signal.
Distance is the maximum distance from the
leak or gas source that the sensor can detect
gases. The flow rate is the necessary flow rate
of air or gas across the gas sensor to produce
a signal
EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ELECTROCHMICAL
CELL APPLICATIONS-

Electrochemical Sensor
consisting of a sensing
electrode a counter electrode
and a reference electrode
seperated by an electrolyte
reservoir. Gas contacting the
sensor diffuses through a
capillary diffusion barrier
which controls the amount of
gas entering the sensor. A gas
permeable membrane reacts
at the surface of the sensing

electrode by either oxidation

or reduction.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

MDS SENSING
APPLICATIONS-The MOS
film deposited onto a substrate
between two electrodes. With
no gas present, the resistance
between the two electrodes is
very high. As gas comes into
contact with the sensor the
resistance decreases (to kiloohms). The decrease in
resistance is proporational to
the concentration of gas
present.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INFRARED SENSING
APPLICATIONS-In
fixed point detectors
there is a fixed path
length between IR
Source & IR Detector.
Typically the path length
is very short-(few
inches) and the gas
concentration is assumed
to be uniform across the
path. With a fixed path
length, the
measurement of
absorption of the IR
beam by the gas being
measured can be
expressed directly as
PPM.
DETECTOR

EDWIN SELVARAJ

HEAT DETECTOR
HEAT DETECTOR is a device that
responds to changes in ambient
temperature. When temperature
rises above the set point, it used
as an alarm device to alert
personnel or
used as release device, to sense
fire and actuate fire attack
systems.

HEAT DETECTORS are

classified into two
types:-1.Rat-of-Rise
Detector
2.Fixed Temperature
Detector

Rat-of-Rise Detector react

the sudden change or rise in
ambient temperature from a
normal baseline condition.
Fixed Temperature Detector
reacts when the ambient
temperature reaches fixed
point
F&G
EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT LOOPS

TOPICS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

TOPICS
EDWIN SELVARAJ

CODES & STANDARDS

1. International Electrical Commission (IEC)
2. National Electrical Code (NEC)
3. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
4. American National Standard Institute, Inc. (ANSI)
5. Instrument Society of America (ISA)
6. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
7. International Standards Organization (ISO)
8. American Petroleum Institute (API)
9. API RP550: Installation of Refinery Instruments And Controls
Systems
10. API Standard 670:Vibration, Axial-Position and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring systems
11. Offshore Reliablity Data (OREDA) changed as ISO 14224
CODE
C

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Definitions of Safety/Relief Valves

Safety Valve is a direct-pressure actuated
pressure relieving valve characterized by a
pop action and suitable for Vapor or Gas
applications (discharges to atmosphere)
Relief Valve is a direct-pressure actuated
pressure relieving valve with no pop action
and usually with no definite blow-down or reclosure point. Used primarily for liquid service
(discharges to drain)
Safety-Relief Valve combination of the
above (where would it discharge?)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

 Typical Safety and Relief Valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Explain the Operating Principles

of Safety Valves
Safety valves are held shut by means of a Steel
spring or Torsion bar acting on the valve Disc so
as to keep it on its Seat
When the Boiler pressure reaches the pressure at
which the valve is set (popping pressure), the disc
will be raised slightly from its seat and steam will begin
to escape through Ports or Holes and collect under
the Lip
The escaping steam provides an additional upward
force and the valve then pops open

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety Valve Parts

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 The Safety or Relief valve is a positive protection

device which prevents the Boiler or other pressure
vessels from exceeding that for which the vessel was
designed
The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Power Boilers code states that each boiler shall have at
least one safety valve or safety relief valve and if the
boiler has more than 47m2 of water heating surface,
or if elec-tric, and it has a power input of more than
500 kw, then it shall have two or more safety valves or
relief valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 The 6% Rule:
- The safety valve must be able to discharge all
of the steam produced by the Boiler without
allowing the pressure to rise more than 6%
above the highest pressure at which any
valve is set and in no case more than 6%
above the maximum allowable working
pressure of the Boiler
- Safety Valve Capacity:
- The capacity of a particular design of safety
valve is determined by means of tests which set
the lift, popping and blow down pressures
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Safety/Relief Valve Types:

1. Huddling Chamber Safety Valve:
- Safety valves are held shut by means of a
steel spring or torsion bar acting on the
valve disc so as to keep it on its seat
- When the Boiler pressure reaches the pressure
at which the valve is set (popping pressure),
the disc will be raised slightly from its seat and
steam will begin to escape through Bleed
holes
- The escaping steam from the Bleed holes
provides an additional upward force on the Lip
of the disc and the valve then pops open
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Huddling Chamber Safety Valve

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 2. Power - Operated Relief Valves:

- A Power-operated relief valve as defined by
ASME, is one whose movements to open or
close are fully controlled by a source of power
(electricity, air/pneumatic, steam or hydraulic).
The valve may be operated manually or
automatically by remote control or device
- On conventional type Boilers, this type cannot
be used as a substitute for regular Safety
or Relief valves, but can be used in
conjunction with them (the next slide explains
why)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

This type of Relief valve has a control station

switch which has three positions:
1. Automatic will open when preset high
pressure setting is reached and re-seat itself
closed when pressure has reduced to the
preset low pressure
2. Manual - the valve opens regardless of
pressure
3. Off the relief valve will stay closed no
matter what (this is why this type of relief
valve cannot be used solely on the Boiler
or any other pressure vessel)
EDWIN SELVARAJ

Installation and Operation of Safety

Valves

- A Safety valve or Relief valve must be connected

to the Boiler independent of any other connection

and attached as close to the Boiler as possible in an
upright position with the spindle vertical
- No valve of any type shall be placed between the
Safety valve or Relief valve and the Boiler, or the
discharge pipe of the Safety valve or Relief
valve
- The Safety/Relief valve discharge pipe shall not
be smaller than the Safety/Relief valve outlet and
the discharge pipe connection should be short and
straight as possible
EDWIN SELVARAJ

pressure
on the Each valve
must be equipped with gravity drains in the discharge pipe and
the casing of the valve
- To insure that the valve is not stuck in the closed position, each
Safety/Relief valve shall have a lifting device or handle by
which the valve disc can be lifted from its seat (there
must be 75% of full working Boiler)

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Proper Safety Valve Installation

Proper (left) and Incorrect (right)

Installation

EDWIN SELVARAJ

 Safety Valve Setting:

- The difference between the pressure at which the
valve opens and the pressure at which the valve
closes (by the spring tension), is called the
Blowdown
- The Blowdown, according to ASME section 1, PG72.1, must be a minimum of 14 kPa, and the
maximum Blowdown will allow the safety valve to close
at a pressure not lower than 96% of the set pressure
of the Safety valve
* NOTE: Play Video of Safety Valves

EDWIN SELVARAJ

SURGE
Compressor surge is an unstable phenomenon
where the gas flow forward and backward across
the machine alternatively. This phenomenon
occurs at certain conditions of flow, pressure ratio
and rotational speed.
As a consequence some damages can occur:
shaft vibration
instability in axial thrust
bearings seizure
seals damage

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FLOW

MAJOR PROCESS PARAMETERS

DURING SURGE
PRESSURE

TIME (sec)

Rapid flow oscillations

TEMPERATURE

Rising temperatures
inside compressor

TIME (sec)

Rapid pressure oscillations

with process instability

EDWIN SELVARAJ

TIME (sec)

SURGE FEATURES

FLOW REVERSES IN 20 TO 50 MILLISECONDS

SURGE CYCLES AT A RATE OF 0.3 sec TO 3 sec PER CYCLE
COMPRESSOR VIBRATES
TEMPERATURE RISE
WHOOSHING NOISE OR CLANKING NOISE
CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND HUMAN
OPERATORS MAY FAIL TO RECOGNIZ SURGE

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

FACTORS LEADING TO ONSET OF SURGE

DURING NORMAL OPERATION WITH:
- High discharge pressure ( Increase of plant resistance )
- Reduction of suction pressure
- Increase of suction temperature
- Gas composition changes (Decrease molecular weight)
START-UP
SHUTDOWN

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

ANTISURGE SYSTEM
An antisurge system avoids that the machine
operating point falls on the surge line.

Substantially the protection consists in the

opening of a control valve that put in
connection the compressor discharge to the
suction.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

As a consequence the resistance curve become the

antisurge valve resistance itself.

This causes an increase in the suction flow and so

the operating point moves away from the critical
condition.
On the right of the surge line a protection curve,
called antisurge line, is defined.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

EDWIN SELVARAJ

A compressor with a single stage, or, if

multistage, realizing a limited compressor
ratio and where the surge is determined by
the first stage, can be regulated by a law of
this simple type: h
>
K
P -P
D

h= Inlet flow index

PD = Pressure discharge
PS = Pressure suction
K = Set-point that corresponds
EDWIN to
SELVARAJ
the antisurge control line

SLL
speed

SLL FOR A COMPRESSOR

WITH ONE IMPELLER

SLL
speed

SLL FOR A COMPRESSOR WITH

MORE THAN ONE IMPELLERS

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROLL ALGORITHM

Psd
hs *
Ps
Pd Ps
f
Ps

K2

The controller set-point is K2. It represents the deviation margin beteween SLL and SCL. The
margin is expressed in percentage of flow. The algorithm takes in account the deltaP measured
across the flow element (indicated by hs that is proportional to square suction flow (hs =
Q2).
The controller algorithm compensates continuously the hs signal according to the suction
pressure variation, taking in account the suction pressure measured and comparing it with the
design suction pressure.

EDWIN SELVARAJ

THE SURGE LIMIT LINE (SLL) IS NOT A

FIXED LINE.
IT CHANGES DEPENDING ON THE
COMPRESSOR INLET CONDITIONS:
T

MW

THE ANTISURGE CONTROLL MUST

PROVIDE A DISTANCE TO SURGE
CALCULATION THAT IS INDEPENDENT
OF ANY CHANGE IN INLET CONDITIONS
EDWIN SELVARAJ

CONTROLL CURVES
Pressure
Ratio

Surge Limit Line

This curve is drawing at 2% on the right of

SLL. When the OP reach this line the controller
generate a Quick-Opening signal to the valve.
curve
is drawing
Safety Protection Line o This
Recicle
trip line

at 5%
right of SLL. When the OP
Safety Correction Line
line the controller generate
Surge Control
Line
Opening
signal to the valv
Compressor

This curve is drawing

at 10% on the
Operating
Point
right of SLL. When
the OP reach
this line
the antisurge controller
is activated
Speed Line

EDWIN SELVARAJ

Suction Flow

EDWIN SELVARAJ

CHOKING
When the flow rate increases beyond a certain
value it may happen that in some ducts is
achieved the speed of the sound.
This phenomenon determine the pressure drops
due to the friction and high incidence of the
flow on the fixed and mobile ducts.
As a consequence there is an enormous
reduction in efficiency.
EDWIN SELVARAJ

SOME DEFINITIONS ABOUT

PERFORMANCE CURVES
ACCORDING TO
NORM API 617
TOPICS
EDWIN SELVARAJ