10

Human Resources, Job

Design, and Work
Measurement

10 - 1

Job Design
Job design involves specifying the
content and methods of job
What will be done
Who will do the job
How the job will be done
Where the job will be done
Ergonomics

2 - 47

10 - 2

Job Design
Factors to consider in job design
1. Job specialization
2. Job expansion
3. Psychological components
4. Self-directed teams
5. Motivation and incentive systems

10 - 3

Labor Specialization
The division of labor into unique tasks
First suggested by Adam Smith in 1776
1. Development of dexterity
2. Less loss of time
3. Development of specialized tools

Later Charles Babbage (1832) added

another consideration
1. Wages exactly fit the required skill
required
10 - 4

Job Expansion
Adding more variety to jobs
Intended to reduce boredom
associated with labor specialization
Job enlargement
Job rotation
Job enrichment
Employee empowerment

10 - 5

Job Enlargement
Enriched job

Planning
(Participate in a crossfunction quality
improvement team)

Enlarged job
Task #3
(Lock printed circuit
board into fixture for
next operation)

Present job
(Manually insert and
solder six resistors)

Task #2
(Adhere labels
to printed
circuit board)

Control
(Test circuits after
assembly)
Figure 10.2
10 - 6

Psychological Components
of Job Design
Human resource strategy requires
consideration of the psychological
components
of job design

10 - 7

Hawthorne Studies
They studied light levels, but discovered
productivity improvement was
independent from lighting levels
Introduced psychology into the workplace
The workplace social system and distinct
roles played by individuals may be more
important than physical factors
Individual differences may be dominant in
job expectation and contribution
10 - 8

Job Design Continuum

Self-directed
teams

Self-direction

Empowerment

Enrichment

Enlargement

Specialization
Job expansion
Figure 10.3
10 - 9

Self-Directed Teams
Group of empowered individuals
working together to reach a
common goal
May be organized for long-term or
short-term objectives
Effective because
Provide employee empowerment
Ensure core job characteristics
Meet individual psychological needs
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Self-Directed Teams
To maximize effectiveness, managers should
Ensure those who have legitimate
contributions are on the team
Provide management support
Ensure the necessary training
Endorse clear objectives and goals
Financial and non-financial rewards
Supervisors must release control
10 - 11

Benefits of Teams and

Expanded Job Designs
Improved quality of work life
Improved job satisfaction
Increased motivation
Allows employees to accept more
responsibility
Improved productivity and quality
Reduced turnover and absenteeism
10 - 12

Limitations of Job
Expansion
1. Higher capital cost
2. Individuals may prefer simple jobs
3. Higher wages rates for greater skills
4. Smaller labor pool
5. Higher training costs

10 - 13

Limitations of Job
Expansion
1. Higher capital cost
2. Individuals may prefer simple
jobs
n
A nual

Average
rs/
ining Hou
3. Higher wages rates for
skills
Tragreater
Employee
4. Smaller labor pool
7
U.S.
5. Higher training costs eden
170
Sw
200
Japan
10 - 14

Ergonomics and the Work

Environment
Ergonomics is the study of the
interface between man and
machine
Often called
human factors

Operator input
to machines
10 - 15

Ergonomics and Work

Methods
Feedback to operators
The work
environment
Illumination
Noise
Temperature
Humidity
10 - 16

Recommended Levels of
Illumination

Figure 10.4A
10 - 17

Levels of Illumination
Task Condition

Type of Task
or Area

Illumination
Level

Type of
Illumination

Small detail,
extreme
accuracy

Sewing, inspecting
dark materials

100

Overhead
ceiling lights
and desk lamp

Normal detail,
prolonged
periods

Reading, parts
assembly,
general office
work

20-50

Overhead
ceiling lights

Good contrast,
fairly large
objects

Recreational
facilities

5-10

Overhead
ceiling lights

Large objects

Restaurants,
stairways,
warehouses

2-5

Overhead
ceiling lights

10 - 18

Decibel Levels

Table 10.4B
10 - 19

Methods Analysis
The need for methods analysis can come
from a number of different sources:
Changes in tools and equipment
Changes in product design
or new products
Changes in materials or procedures
Other factors (e.g. accidents, quality
problems)
20 - 47

10 - 20

Methods Analysis
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
21 - 47

Identify the operation to be studied

Get employee input
Study and document current method
Analyze the job
Propose new methods
Install new methods
Follow-up to ensure improvements
have been achieved
10 - 21

Methods Analysis
Focuses on how task is performed
Used to analyze
1. Movement of individuals or material
Flow diagrams and process charts

2. Activities of human and machine

and crew activity
Activity charts

3. Body movement
Operations charts
10 - 22

Flow Diagram
Welding
From
press
mach.

Storage bins
Mach. 3

Mach. 4

Paint
shop

Machine 1

Mach. 2

Figure 10.5 (a)

10 - 23

Flow Diagram

Welding

Machine 4
Machine 3

Paint
shop

Machine 2
Machine 1
From
press
mach.

Storage
bins

Figure 10.5 (b)

10 - 24

Process
Chart

Figure 10.5 (c)

10 - 25

The Visual Workplace

Use low-cost visual devices to
share information quickly and
accurately
Displays and graphs replace
printouts and paperwork
Able to provide timely information
in a dynamic environment
System should focus on
improvement
10 - 26

Motion Study
Motion study is the systematic
study of the human motions used
to perform an operation.

27 - 47

10 - 27

Developing Work Methods

1. Eliminate unnecessary motions
2. Combine activities
3. Reduce fatigue
4. Improve the arrangement of the
workplace
5. Improve the design of tools and
equipment
28 - 47

10 - 28

Why study the design of work systems?

Worker performance depends on
Motivation
Ability
Work environment

Foundation laid by Frederick Taylor

Match employees to task
Develop work methods
Establish work standards needs measurement
i.e. work measurement

29 - 47

10 - 29

What is Work
Measurement?
Determining the amount of worker
time required to generate one unit of
output
Provides labor standards
Target amount of time required to
perform a job under normal working
conditions

30 - 47

10 - 30

Types of Work Measurement

Predetermine Standard time
Stopwatch time study
Historical times
Work Sampling

31 - 47

10 - 31

Work Standards and its uses

32 - 47

Is the time required for a trained worker to

perform a task following a prescribed method
with normal effort and skill.
It helps the mgt to:
a) Establish price and cost.
b) Motivating workers.
c) Comparing alternative process design.
d) Scheduling.
e) Capacity planning.
f) Performance appraisal.
10 - 32

Types of work
measurement:

a) Time Study Method.

There are 4 steps here namely,
Selecting work elements - determine the work
element that has been running for quite
sometime and has a definite starting point and
ending points.
Timing the element.
Setting the standard
Normal Time, NT = t (F) (RF)
Normal Time for the cycle, NTC = NT and

Standard time = NT(1+AF)

33 - 47

10 - 33

Where:
t = the select time
F = frequency of the work element per cycle
RF = rating factor (determine by the analyst)
How much above or below average the worker's
performance on each work element (need to
include fatigue, personal needs etc)

34 - 47

Determining sample size - done by using the

normal distribution
n = [ (z /p) ( /t) ] 2
p = precision of the estimate
10 - 34

Time study method is suitable for:

35 - 47

Fixed work place.

Repetitive work and in short cycle.

Work that is stable work process and

method will not change in the near
future.

High output from the work.

It is not suitable for work that requires

thinking process.

10 - 35

EXAMPLE 1
A time study on operative work found that
an average observed cycle time for a
particular task is 4.0 minutes.
The analyst predict from the observation
that the workers are only operating at
85% of the normal time needed to
perform that task. If the company
employs and allowable time of 13% find
the standard time for that task.
36 - 47

10 - 36

Normal Time, NT = t (F) (RF)

= 4.0 (1) (0.85)
= 3.4 min
Standard Time = NTC (1 + A)
= 3.4 (1 + 0.13)
= 3.842 min

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10 - 37

EXAMPLE 2
BCD committee is currently organizing a
conference for business student. As part of the
promotional activities, it is sending invitation
letters to various organization. A time study
was conducted to examine the time taken for the
promotional department to prepare and mail the
invitation letter.
Based on the observation, the committee hopes
to develop a standard time for the task. An
allowance of 15% was given to include fatigue
and tiredness of the worker.
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10 - 38

Work
element

Observable time (minutes)

1
2
3
4
5

Performance
rating

Typing the
invitation letter

10

21*

11

120%

Preparing the
envelope

105%

Glued, stamped
2
1
5*
2
1
110%
and arrange for
postage
*
abnormal time. Ignore this time (possible disturbance
inclue answering phone enquire)
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10 - 39

EXAMPLE 3
The following is a time study on claim
processing of an insurance company. The
task is divided into 4 work element.
a. Calculate the normal time of this task.
b. Calculate the standard time for the task,
assuming that the allowance time is 20%.
c. What is the sample size needed to estimate
the work element 2 with a 95% confidence
level and an accuracy of 10%?

40 - 47

10 - 40

Observation
3
4

RF

Work element 1

Checking the 0.50

form

3.3

5.70

8.20

10.85

1.1

0.0570

Calculate the 0.70

claim amount

3.45

5.95

8.55

11.10

1.2

0.0742

Determine
1.45
the amount to
be deducted

4.05

6.50

9.25

11.75

1.2

0.0791

Prepare the
check

5.25

7.60

10.35

13.05

0.9

0.1000

41 - 47

2.75

10 - 41

3c. n = [ (z /p) ( /t) ]2

n = [ (1.96 /0.1) (0.0742 /0.24) ] 2 = 36.72
= 37

42 - 47

Desired confidence (%)

Z value

90
95
95.45
96

1.65
1.96
2.0
2.05

97
98
99

2.17
2.33
2.58

99.73

3.00
10 - 42

EXAMPLE 4
You are instructed by your operation manager to
check the standard time of your organization.
Your first task is to identify the accurate sample
size for observation. You wanted an accuracy of
5% with a 95% level of confidence. Standard
deviation for the sample is 1.0 while the average
time is 3.00 minutes.
Note: if standard deviation is not given, then you must
calculate it yourself using the formula below:

s =

(xi x) 2
n-1

43 - 47

10 - 43

EXAMPLE 5
Data from an observation of a new task in
KLMN Company is as follows:
Observation
1
2
3
4
5

44 - 47

Time (s)
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4

If the company wants

an accuracy of + 3%
and a 99%
confidence level,
determine the
number of
observation needed.

10 - 44

Uses of time study method Compensation

Time-based system
Compensation based on time an
employee has worked during a pay
period

Output-based (incentive) system

Compensation based on the amount
of output an employee produces
during a pay period

45 - 47

10 - 45

Form of Incentive Plan

Accurate
Easy to apply
Consistent
Easy to understand
Fair

46 - 47

10 - 46

Work Sampling Method

b) Work Sampling Method estimates the
percent of the time that a worker spends on
various tasks. The assumption is that the
data obtain is able to generalized for the
whole operations. To obtain the accurate
scenario of the working condition, the
number of sample size observe must be
statistically correct. This is given by the
formula:

47 - 47

10 - 47

48 - 47

n = (z /e)2 p(1-p)
n = sample size
z = number of std deviations needed to achieve
the desired confidence
e = maximum error in the estimate
p = sample proportion (number of occurrences
divided by the sample size).
It is used to estimate time needed by an
employee or a machine for a particular activity.
It requires random observation over a period of
time. Eg cant observe only at 2.30 pm
everytime cos the employee may change
his/her habit while being observe.
10 - 48

EXAMPLE 6
The manager of a service operative organization
wants to determine the ratio of idle time of its
service counter staff.
A random observation by the manager yield the
following data:
If the manager wants an accuracy of + 4% with a
confidence level of 95%, suggest the number of
observation require.

49 - 47

10 - 49

Day

Number of Number of Total

time busy time idle
observation

Monday

10

Tuesday

Wednesday

12

Thursday

10

Friday

10

Saturday

10

=15

=60

50 - 47

10 - 50

Solution
p = 15 / 60 = 0.25
n = (z /e)2 p(1-p)
n = (1.96 / 0.04)2 0.25(1- 0.25)
= 451

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10 - 51

EXAMPLE 7
Ali is a manager of a voluntary home. He
estimates that his workers are idle a quarter of
their time.
He wanted to conduct a work sampling which
gives an accuracy of 3 % and a confidence
level of 95% from his study. How many
observation must he conduct to achieve the
above standard?
52 - 47

10 - 52

Work Sampling
Advantages of work sampling
Less expensive than time study
Observers need little training
Studies can be delayed or interrupted
with little impact on results
Worker has little
chance to affect
results
Less intrusive
10 - 53

Work Sampling
Disadvantages of work sampling
Does not divide work elements as
completely as time study
Can yield biased results if observer
does not follow random pattern
Less accurate, especially when
job element times are short

10 - 54

Ethics and the Work

Environment
Fairness, equity, and ethics are
important constraints of job design
Important issues may relate to equal
opportunity, equal pay for equal
work, and safe working conditions
Helpful to work with government
agencies, trade unions, insurers,
and employees
10 - 55

A Final Thought
Two stonecutters were
asked what they were
doing. The first said, Im
cutting this stone into
blocks. The second one
replied, Im on a team
thats building a cathedral.

Church of the
Holy Family
(Barcelona)

Old Story
1995 Corel Corp.
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10 - 56