NERVOUS SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and

supporting cells
o
o

Neurons are nerve cells that transfer information within the body
Neurons use two types of signals to communicate: electrical signals
(long-distance) and chemical signals (short-distance)

All animals except sponges

Have some type of nervous system
What distinguishes the nervous systems of different animal

groups

Is how the neurons are organized into circuits

Organization of Nervous Systems

Animals are multicellular and most groups respond to

stimuli using systems of neurons

The

simplest
cnidarians

animals

with

nervous

Have neurons arranged in

nerve nets

systems,

Nerve net

Controls

the contraction & expansion of

the gastrovascular cavity
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)

the

 More complex animals have nerves

Nerves are bundles that consist of the axons of multiple

nerve cells
Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm connected by radial
nerves to a central nerve ring
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring

(b)

Sea star
(echinoderm)

 In

relatively
simple
cephalized animals, such
as flatworms

A central nervous system

(CNS) is evident
Clustering of sensory neurons
at the anterior (front) end
One or more nerve cords
extending
toward
the
posterior end connect these
structures
with
nerves
elsewhere in the body

Eyespot
Brain
Nerve
cords

Transverse
nerve

(c) Planarian (flatworm)

Annelids and arthropods

Have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia
These ganglia connect to the CNS and make up a peripheral
nervous system (PNS)

Brain

Brain
Ventral
nerve cord

Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
Segmental
ganglia

(d) Leech (annelid)

(e) Insect (arthropod)

In vertebrates
The central nervous system consists of a brain and dorsal
spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects to the CNS
Nerves and ganglia comprise the PNS
Brain

Spinal
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)

Sensory
ganglia

(h) Salamander (vertebrate)

 Nervous

system organization usually correlates with

lifestyle
Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and chitons) have
simple systems, whereas more complex molluscs (for
example, octopuses and squids) have more sophisticated
systems

Ganglia
Anterior
nerve ring
Longitudinal
nerve cords

Brain
Ganglia

(f) Chiton (mollusc)

(g) Squid (mollusc)

Information Processing
Nervous systems process information in three

stages
Sensory input
Integration
Motor output

Many animals have a complex nervous system

that consists of
A

central nervous system (CNS) where

integration takes place; this includes the brain and
a nerve cord
A peripheral nervous system (PNS), which
carries information into and out of the CNS
The neurons of the PNS, when bundled together,
form nerves

Central nervous
system (CNS)
Brain

Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Cranial nerves

Spinal cord
Ganglia outside
CNS
Spinal nerves

The vertebrate nervous system.

Sensors

detect external stimuli and internal

conditions and transmit information along sensory
neurons

Sensory information is sent to the brain or ganglia,

where interneurons integrate the information

Motor output leaves the brain or ganglia via motor

neurons, which trigger muscle or gland activity

Sensory input

Integration

Sensor

Motor output

Effector

Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)

Central nervous
system (CNS)

The three stages of information processing

Are illustrated in the knee-jerk reflex
2 Sensors detect
a sudden stretch in
the quadriceps.

3 Sensory neurons
convey the information
to the spinal cord.
Cell body of
sensory neuron
in dorsal
root ganglion

4 The sensory neurons communicate with

motor neurons that supply the quadriceps. The
motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps,
causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward.
Gray matter
5 Sensory neurons
from the quadriceps
also communicate
with interneurons
in the spinal cord.

Quadriceps
muscle
White
matter

Hamstring
muscle

Spinal cord
(cross section)
Sensory neuron
1 The reflex is
initiated by tapping
the tendon connected
to the quadriceps
(extensor) muscle.

Motor neuron
Interneuron

6 The interneurons
inhibit motor neurons
that supply the
hamstring (flexor)
muscle. This inhibition
prevents the hamstring
from contracting,
which would resist
the action of
the quadriceps.

Neuron Structure and Function

Most of a neurons organelles are in the cell body
Most neurons have dendrites, highly branched

extensions that receive signals from other neurons

The axon is typically a much longer extension that

transmits signals to other cells at synapses

The cone-shaped base of an axon is called the

axon hillock

Dendrites
Stimulus
Axon hillock

Nucleus
Cell
body
Presynaptic
cell

Axon

Signal
direction
Synapse

Neurotransmitter

Synaptic terminals

Postsynaptic cell

Synaptic
terminals

 The synaptic terminal of one axon passes information

across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers

called neurotransmitters
A synapse is a junction between an axon and another cell
Information is transmitted from a presynaptic cell (a neuron)

to a postsynaptic cell (a neuron, muscle, or gland cell)

Most neurons are nourished or insulated by cells called glial

cells or glia

Dendrites
Axon
Cell
body

Portion
of axon
Sensory neuron

Interneurons

Motor neuron

Figure 48.6

80 m

Glia

Cell bodies of neurons

Ion Pumps & Ion Channels Maintains the Resting

Potential of a Neuron
Every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical

charge) across its plasma membrane called a

membrane potential
The resting potential is the membrane potential of

a neuron not sending signals ( between -60 and -80

mV )
Changes in membrane potential act as signals,

transmitting and processing information

Formation of the Resting Potential

Is the membrane potential of a neuron that is not

transmitting signals
In all neurons, the resting potential
Depends

on the ionic gradients that exist across

the plasma membrane

In a mammalian neuron, the concentration of K+ is

highest inside the cell, while the concentration of Na+

is highest outside the cell
Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy of ATP to

maintain these K+ and Na+ gradients across the

plasma membrane
These concentration gradients represent chemical

potential energy

The

opening of ion channels in the plasma

membrane converts chemical potential to electrical
potential

A neuron at resting potential contains many open K+

channels and fewer open Na+ channels; K+ diffuses

out of the cell
The resulting buildup of negative charge within the

neuron is the major source of membrane potential

The values shown represent the approximate concentrations in millimoles

per liter (mM) for ions in the fluids within and surrounding a mammalian
neuron.

Key

Na
K
Sodiumpotassium
pump

OUTSIDE
OF CELL

Potassium
channel
Sodium
channel

INSIDE
OF CELL
The basis of the membrane potential
The membrane potential begins primarily from the interaction between the membrane and the actions of two kinds of
transmembrane proteins embedded in the plasma membrane. The membrane provides as both an insulator and a diffusion
barrier to the movement of ions. The Ion transporter/pump proteins actively push ions across the membrane to set up
concentration gradients across the membrane, and ion channels permit ions to move across the membrane down to those
concentration gradients, a process termed as facilitated diffusion. In nearly fundamental illustration of this, the ion
transporter Na+/K+-ATPase pumps sodium cations from inside to the outside, and potassium cations from outside to inside of
the cell. This begins two concentration gradients: a gradient for sodium where its concentration is much higher at outside than
inside the cell, and the gradient for potassium where its concentration is much higher at inside the cell than outside. In the
case of K+, its diffusion down its concentration gradient generates transmembrane voltage which is negative relative to the
outside of the cell, and usually 60 to 80 millivolts (mV) in amplitude.

The Action Potential

Action potentials are the nerve signals or nerve

impulses conducted by axons

If a cell has gated ion channels
Its

membrane potential may change in response to

stimuli that open or close those channels, changing
the membranes voltage

Gated Ion Channels

Gated ion channels open or close
In

response to a change in the membrane

potential
Alters the membranes permeability to particular
ions which in turn alters the membrane potential

Hyperpolarization and Depolarization

When gated K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out,

making the inside of the cell more negative

This

is hyperpolarization, an increase
magnitude of the membrane potential

in

In a resting neuron, hyperpolarization results from

any stimulus that increases the outflow of positive

ions or the inflow of negative ions

Stimulus

(a) Graded hyperpolarizations

produced by two stimuli
that increase membrane
permeability to K
Membrane potential (mV)

50

50 Threshold

100

Resting
potential
Hyperpolarizations
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)

Opening other types of ion channels triggers a

depolarization, a reduction in the magnitude of

the membrane potential
For example, depolarization occurs if gated Na+

channels open and Na+ diffuses into the cell

(b) Graded depolarizations

produced by two stimuli
that increase membrane
permeability to Na

Stimulus

Membrane potential (mV)

50

50 Threshold

100

Resting
potential
Depolarizations
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)

Hyperpolarization

Depolarization

Gated K+ channels in a resting

Gated Na+ channels in a resting

neuron are stimulated to open

Increase
the
membranes
permeability to K+
K+ diffuses out of the neuron
Increase the magnitude of the
membrane potential
Making the inside of the
membrane more negative

neuron are stimulated to open

Increase
the
membranes
permeability to Na+ diffuses into
the cell
Reduce the magnitude of the
membrane potential
Making the inside of the
membrane less negative

Graded Potentials and Action Potentials

An action potential

Is an all-or-none law the neurons transmit an

impulse in a similar way no matter how weak/strong the
impulse is
The neuron either transmits an action potential (all) or
does not (none)

Both voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+

channels
Are involved in the production of an action potential

Generation of Action Potentials

An action potential can be considered as a series

of stages
Occur whenever a depolarization increases the
membrane voltage to a particular value, called the
threshold (mammalian neurons, -55 mV)
At resting potential
1.

Most voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels

are closed; most of the voltage-gated
potassium (K+) channels are also closed

Figure 48.11-1

Key
Na
K

Membrane potential
(mV)

50

0
Threshold

50

100
OUTSIDE OF CELL

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state

Sodium
channel

Potassium
channel

1
Resting potential
Time

When an action potential is generated

2.

3.

4.

Voltage-gated Na+ channels open first and

Na+ flows into the cell
During the rising phase, the threshold is
crossed, and the membrane potential
increases
During the falling phase, voltage-gated Na+
channels become inactivated; voltage-gated
K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell

Figure 48.11-2

Key
Na
K

Membrane potential
(mV)

50

50

2 Depolarization
OUTSIDE OF CELL

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state

100
Sodium
channel

Potassium
channel

Threshold
2
1
Resting potential
Time

Figure 48.11-3

Key
Na
K

50
Membrane potential
(mV)

3 Rising phase of the action potential

OUTSIDE OF CELL

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state

100
Sodium
channel

Potassium
channel

50

2 Depolarization

Action
potential

Threshold
2
1
Resting potential
Time

Figure 48.11-4

Key
Na
K

50
Membrane potential
(mV)

3 Rising phase of the action potential

OUTSIDE OF CELL

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state

100
Sodium
channel

Potassium
channel

Action
potential
3

50

2 Depolarization

4 Falling phase of the action potential

Threshold
2

1
Resting potential
Time

5. During the undershoot, membrane

permeability to K+ is at first higher than at
rest, then voltage-gated K+ channels
close and resting potential is restored

Figure 48.11-5

Key
Na
K

50
Membrane potential
(mV)

3 Rising phase of the action potential

OUTSIDE OF CELL

100
Sodium
channel

Potassium
channel

Action
potential
3

50

2 Depolarization

4 Falling phase of the action potential

Threshold
2
1

Resting potential
Time

INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
1 Resting state

5 Undershoot

 During the refractory period after an action potential, a

second action potential cannot be initiated

The refractory period is a result of a temporary inactivation

of the Na+ channels

Animation: Action Potential

Conduction of Action Potentials

At the site where the action potential is generated, usually

the axon hillock, an electrical current depolarizes the

neighboring region of the axon membrane

Action potentials travel in only one direction: toward the

synaptic terminals

Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of depolarization

prevent the action potential from traveling backwards

Conduction of an Action Potential

Axon

Action
potential

Na+

Action
potential

K+
+

Na+

K+

Action
potential

K+
+

Na+

An action potential is generated

as Na+ flows inward across the
membrane at one location.

The depolarization of the action

potential spreads to the neighboring
region of the membrane, re-initiating
the action potential there. To the left
of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.

The depolarization-repolarization process is

repeated in the next region of the
membrane. In this way, local currents
of ions across the plasma membrane
cause the action potential to be propagated
along the length of the axon.

Conduction Speed
The speed of an action potential

Increases with the diameter of an axon

In vertebrates, axons is electrical insulation

The electrical insulation that surrounds axons is called a

myelin sheath
Also causing the speed of an action potential to increase

Action potentials in myelinated axons

Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a process called

saltatory conduction

Schwann cell

Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath

Cell body

+
++
+
++

+
+
+
++

Axon

Saltatory conduction. In a myelinated axon, depolarizing current during an

action potential at one node of Ranvier spreads along the interior of the axon
to next node (blue arrow), where it reinitiates itself. Thus the action potential
jumps from node to node as it travels along the axon (red arrows).

Neurons communicate with other cells at

sypnapses
In an electrical synapse

Electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via

a gap junction

The vast majority of synapses are chemical synapses

In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron

Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which are stored in

the synaptic terminal

When an action potential reaches a terminal

The

final
result
is
the
release
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

Synaptic

of

cleft : narrow gap that separates the

presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell

Postsynaptic cell

Presynaptic
cell

Synaptic vesicles
containing
neurotransmitter

5
Presynaptic
membrane

Ligandgated
ion channel

Ca2+

2
Synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter
Postsynaptic
membrane

Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
1

Na+
K+

Postsynaptic
membrane

Ligand-gated
ion channels

A chemical synapse. (1)When an action potential depolarizes the plasma membrane of the
synaptic terminal, it (2) opens voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane, triggering an
influx of Ca+ . (3) The elevated Ca+ concentration in the terminal causes synaptic vesicles to
fuse with the presynaptic membrane. (4) The vesicles release neurotransmitter into synaptic
cleft. (5) The neurotransmitter binds to the receptor portion of ligand-gated ion channels in the
postsynaptic membrane, opening the channels. In the synapse illustrated here, both Na+ and K+
can diffuse through the channels. (6) The neurotransmitter is released from the receptors, and
the channel close. Synaptic transmission ends when the neurotransmitter diffuses out of the
synaptic cleft.

Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials

The

receptor protein that binds and responds

neurotransmitters is a ligand-gated ion channel

to

Direct

synaptic transmission involves binding of

neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion channels in the
postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitter binding causes ion channels to open,

allows specific ions to diffuse, generating a postsynaptic

potential, a graded potential in the postsynaptic cell

 Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are

depolarizations that bring the membrane potential
toward threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) are
hyperpolarizations that move the membrane potential
farther from threshold

 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)

Depolarize the postsynaptic neuron

The binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic
receptors opens gated channels that allow Na+
and K+
diffuse out of the cell
The inside of the cell becomes more positive, hence
causing a local depolarization
If enough depolarization occurs an action potential
is generated

 Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)

decrease the cells ability to develop action

potentials
channels are permeable to Cl- and K+ where Clmoves into the cell and K+ moves out of the cell
The inside of the cell thus becomes more negative,
hence causing a local hyperpolarization make it more
difficult for the cell membrane potential to
reach
threshold less likely that an action potential will be
generated

Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials

The magnitude of the postsynaptic potential at any

one synapse varies with a number of factors

Unlike action potentials
Postsynaptic

potentials are graded and do not

regenerate themselves

Postsynaptic
neuron

5 m

Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons

Synaptic terminals on the cell body of a

postsynaptic neuron (colorized SEM)

 Since most neurons have many synapses on their dendrites and cell

body
A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an action potential in a
postsynaptic neuron
Terminal branch of
presynaptic neuron

Membrane potential (mV)

Postsynaptic
neuron

E1

Threshold of axon of
postsynaptic neuron

Resting
potential

70

E1

E1

(a) Subthreshold, no summation

If two EPSPs are produced in rapid succession

An effect called temporal summation occurs

E1

Axon
hillock

Action
potential

E1

E1

(b) Temporal summation

 EPSPs

produced nearly simultaneously by different

synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron add together
An effect called spatial summation occurs
E2

E1

Action
potential

E1 + E2

(c) Spatial summation

 Through summation

An IPSP can counter the effect of an EPSP

E1

E1

E1 + I

(d) Spatial summation

of EPSP and IPSP

Major neurotransmitters

DID YOU KNOW:

It is very quick, and has the ability of transmitting impulses

at the speed of 100 meters per second. The speed of
message transmission to the brain can be as high as 180
miles per hour.