Internal Environment: Behavior

Individual Behavior
P = f (A, M)
Motivation defined!
Homeostasis --- applied to psychological needs
MotivationTheories --- Applicability across cultures??

Content Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability

Maslows Need Hierarchy and Alderfers ERG
Two Factor Theory of Motivation - Herzberg
McClelland Achievement Motivation

Internal Environment: Behavior

Process Theories and Cross Cultural Applicability
Equity Theory of Motivation
Goal - Setting
Expectancy Theory of Motivation

valence

Effort Performance Outcome

expectancy

instrumentality

Motivation and Hofstede

High UNC - job security
Low UNC - fast-track, more risky opportunities
Low POW - motivation through teamwork and peers
High POW - motivation depends on boss
High IND - motivation through opportunities for individual
advancement
Low IND - motivation through appeals to group goals and support
High MASC - comfortable with traditional division of work roles
Feminine - looser definition of roles, more flexible

The Meaning of Work

Tied to economic necessity
What else?
Thai: work = ngan(same word as the word for play)

Work centrality - relative importance of work

Functions of work?

Work Centrality
Work centrality
the degree of general importance that working has in
the life of an individual at any given point in time.

Mean work centrality score increases, the more

motivated and committed the workers would be.

The Meaning of Work (MOW) Research

Functions satisfied by work
Work provides a needed income
Is interesting and satisfying
Provides contacts with others
Facilitates a way to serve society
Keeps one occupied
Gives status and prestige
The MOW team looked at the score for each function for
various countries - Study results: Britain (lowest),
Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, USA, Israel, Japan

The Relative Meaning of Work in Eight

work
CountriesMean
centrality score
(Exhibit 11-1)8.0

7.75

7.78 Japan (7)

N = 3144

7.5
Work is
more
important
and more
central in
life

7.25
7.0
6.75
6.5
6.25
6.0

7.30 (former) Yugoslavia (5)

7.1
Israel (4)
06.94
USA (3)
6.8
Belgium (1)
1
6.69
Netherlands (1)
6.67 Germany (1)
6.3
Britain (0)
6

N = 521
N = 893
N = 996
N = 446
N = 976
N = 1276
N = 409

Numbers in parentheses indicate the

number
of countries significantly lower (p<0.05) in
work centrality than the country designated

Motivation Theories in the International

Context
How applicable are motivation theories proposed by
Maslow and Herzberg in the international context?
Haire, Ghiselli and Porters survey concluded that
Maslows needs, in particular the upper-level ones, are
important at the managerial level
Ronen concluded that need clusters are constant across
nationalities and that Maslows need hierarchy is
confirmed by these clusters. Also, Herzbergs categories
are confirmed by the cross-national need clusters..

The Need Hierarchy in the International

Context
Ronens need clusters
Job goals, such as working area, work time,
physical working conditions, fringe benefits, and
job security;
relationships with co-workers and supervisors;
and
work challenges and opportunities for using
skills.

Group Behavior
Group effectiveness = individual behavior +
Mature group = effective group
Stages of development
Two main characteristics for the analysis of Groups
Leadership and composition

 Leadership
Which Hofstede dimensions?
Types of leadership styles:
autocratic, participative, group
authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire
Theory X, Theory Y

 Research:
traits, behaviors, contingency approach

Vroom - Yetton
Across cultures: Haire, Ghiselli, Porter
South-European and Nordic-European --- more autocratic, more Theory
X
South-European give a little more autonomy to employees in working
out details

 Both support participative leadership practices

Smaller companies participative
Japanese Theory Y --- employees learn from mistakes
Germans Theory X --- autocratic, stop poor performance asap

Group Behavior: Group Composition --Multicultural Teams

Impact of cultural
performance?

diversity

on

group

group productivity = f(task, resources, process)

actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty
process
actual productivity or =
potential productivity or - losses or

 benefits associated with cultural diversity:

# of alternatives generated;
quality of alternatives;
creativity/divergence;
no groupthink

 Process Losses:
potential for miscommunication increases;
cohesiveness decreases;
negative attitudes (dislike, mistrust);
perceptual problems (stereotyping);
stress

managing team effectiveness:

Multicultural teams have the potential to be the most or the least
effective teams
Group development stages: entry, work, action
Task: innovative or routine

Manage culturally diverse teams

through:
task-related selection
recognition of differences
superordinate goals
equal power
mutual respect
feedback

Variables in the Leaders Role

The content of leadership comprises the
attributes of the leader and the decisions to be
made
The context of leadership comprises all those
variables related to the particular situation.

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad

(Exhibit 11-7)

CONTENT
Attributes of the Person
Job position knowledge,
experience, expectations
Longevity in company, country,
functional area
Intelligence and cultural
learning or change ability
Personality as demonstrated in
values, beliefs, attitudes toward
foreign situations
Multiple memberships in work
and professional groups

Characteristics of Decision
Situation
Degree of complexity,
uncertainty, and risk
In-country information needs
and availability
Articulation of assumptions and
expectations
Scope and potential impact on
performance
Nature of business partners

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad

(contd.)
Decision and personal work
style

Authority and autonomy

required
Required level of
participation and
acceptance by employees,
partners, and government
Linkage to other decisions
Past management legacy
Openness to public
scrutiny and responsibility

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad

(contd.)

CONTEXT
Attributes of the Job or
Position
Longevity and past success of
former role occupants in the
position
Technical requirements of the
job
Relative authority or power
Physical location (e.g., home
office, field office)
Need for coordination,
cooperation, and integration
with other units

Characteristics of the Firm

and Business Environment
Firm structure: size, location,
technology, tasks, reporting,
and communication patterns
Firm process: decision making,
staffing, control system, reward
system, information system,
means of coordination,
integration, and conflict
resolution

Factors Affecting Leadership Abroad

(contd.)
Resource availability
Foreign peer group relations

Firm outputs: products,

services, public image,
corporate culture, local history,
and community relations
Business environment: socialcultural, political-economic,
and technological aspects of a
country or market

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding

Effective Leadership Styles
(Selected data)
(Exhibit
11-8)
Country N
Austria
Brazil
China
Denmark
England
India
Israel
Japan
Mexico
Russia
USA

169
264
160
327
168
231
543
197
327
301
399

Charisma Team
6.03
6.01
5.57
6.01
6.01
5.85
6.23
5.49
5.66
5.66
6.12

5.74
6.17
5.57
5.70
5.71
5.72
5.91
5.56
5.75
5.63
5.80

SelfProtective

Part.

Humane Auton.

3.07
3.50
3.80
2.82
3.04
3.78
3.64
3.61
3.86
3.69
3.16

6.00
6.06
5.05
5.80
5.57
4.99
4.96
5.08
4.64
4.67
5.93

4.93
4.84
5.18
4.23
4.90
5.26
4.68
4.68
4.71
4.08
5.21

Scale 1 to 7 in order of how important those behaviors

are considered for effective leadership (7 = highest)

4.47
2.27
4.07
3.79
3.92
3.85
4.26
3.67
3.86
4.63
3.75

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding

Effective Leadership Styles
Sample comments made by managers from various
countries:
Americans appreciate two kinds of leaders. They seek empowerment
from leaders who grant autonomy and delegate authority to
subordinates. They also respect the bold, forceful, confident, and risktaking leader, as personified by John Wayne.
The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical about
the value of leadership. Terms like leader and manager carry a stigma.
If a father is employed as a manager, Dutch children will not admit it
to their schoolmates.
Arabs worship their leaders as long as they are in power!

Culturally-Contingent Beliefs Regarding

Effective Leadership Styles
(contd.)
Iranians seek power and strength in their leaders.
Malaysians expect their leaders to behave in a manner that is humble,
modest, and dignified.
The French expect their leaders to be cultivated highly educated in
the arts and in mathematics.

R. House, et al.

The Culture Contingency in the Leadership

Process: An Integrative Model
(Exhibit 11-12)
Context

Content

Leader-Follower
Situation

External Origin
Political
Economic
Technological
Cultural

Leader
Cultural sensitivity
Values, motives
Ability, experiences
Source of power
Personality, style

Leader Behavior Variables

Autocratic or participative
Task or people oriented
Reward system
Transformational

Subordinates
Level of Divergence/ Values, norms
Convergence of
Ability, experiences
Culture/
Needs, motives
Management
Locus of control

Interaction
Influence

The Culture Contingency in the Leadership

Process: An Integrative Model
(contd.)

Motivation
Effects

Employee
Behavior
Work Groups
Variables
Values, norms
Expectancy
Work goals
achievement
Authority system
Internal Origin
Value of rewards
Organization factors Group processes Responsiveness to
Task factors
Leader behaviors
Resource availability
Group response
Systems
Processes
Motivation

Outcomes

Effort
Productivity
Performance Quality
Ability to
Achievement of
Achieve goals individual and
group goals
Satisfaction Positive climate
Turnover
Satisfaction
Absenteeism
Quality

Feedback
Rewards