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E(x) 1090
80
14.6
n
30
z
.
.00
.
.08
.09
.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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x 14.6
Area = .7517
x
1090 1100
Sampling Distribution of x
MAT Scores
x 14.6
Area = .2483
x
1080 1090
x
Sampling Distribution of
x
Sampling Distribution of
x 14.6
Area = .5034
x
1080 1090 1100
80
x
8.0
n
100
E(x) 1090
x 8
Area = .7888
x
108010901100
Sampling Distribution of p
Sampling Distribution of
E ( p) p
where:
p = the population proportion
Sampling Distribution of
Standard Deviation ofp
Finite Population
N n
p
N 1
p(1 p )
n
Infinite Population
p(1 p )
n
Sampling Distribution of
Sampling Distribution of
Sampling Distribution of
E(p) .72
.72(1 .72)
.082
30
Sampling Distribution of
Sampling Distribution of
z
.
.00
.
.08
.09
.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sampling Distribution of
p .082
Area = .7291
p
.72 .77
Sampling Distribution of
Sampling Distribution of
p .082
Area = .2709
p
.67 .72
Sampling Distribution of
Sampling Distribution of
p .082
Area = .4582
p
.67 .72 .77
Unbiased
If the expected value of the sample statistic
is equal to the population parameter being
estimated, the sample statistic is said to be an
unbiased estimator of the population
parameter.
Efficiency
Given the choice of two unbiased
estimators of the same population parameter,
we would prefer to use the point estimator
with the smaller standard deviation, since it
tends to provide estimates closer to the
population parameter.
The point estimator with the smaller
standard deviation is said to have greater
relative efficiency than the other.
Consistency
A point estimator is consistent if the
values of the point estimator tend to become
closer to the population parameter as the
sample size becomes larger.
In other words, a large sample size tends
to provide a better point estimate than a small
sample size.
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Judgment Sampling
Cluster Sampling
The
The population
population is
is first
first divided
divided into
into separate
separate groups
groups
of
of elements
elements called
called clusters.
clusters.
Ideally,
Ideally, each
each cluster
cluster is
is aa representative
representative small-scale
small-scale
version
version of
of the
the population
population (i.e.
(i.e. heterogeneous
heterogeneous group).
group).
A
A simple
simple random
random sample
sample of
of the
the clusters
clusters is
is then
then taken.
taken.
All
All elements
elements within
within each
each sampled
sampled (chosen)
(chosen) cluster
cluster
form
form the
the sample.
sample.
Cluster Sampling
Example:
Example: A
A primary
primary application
application is
is area
area sampling,
sampling,
where
where clusters
clusters are
are city
city blocks
blocks or
or other
other well-defined
well-defined
areas.
areas.
Advantage:
Advantage: The
The close
close proximity
proximity of
of elements
elements can
can be
be
cost
cost effective
effective (i.e.
(i.e. many
many sample
sample observations
observations can
can be
be
obtained
obtained in
in aa short
short time).
time).
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage: This
This method
method generally
generally requires
requires aa
larger
larger total
total sample
sample size
size than
than simple
simple or
or stratified
stratified
random
random sampling.
sampling.
Systematic Sampling
If
If aa sample
sample size
size of
of n
n is
is desired
desired from
from aa population
population
containing
containing N
N elements,
elements, we
we might
might sample
sample one
one
element
element for
for every
every n/N
n/N elements
elements in
in the
the population.
population.
We
We randomly
randomly select
select one
one of
of the
the first
first n/N
n/N elements
elements
from
from the
the population
population list.
list.
We
We then
then select
select every
every n/Nth
n/Nth element
element that
that follows
follows in
in
the
the population
population list.
list.
Systematic Sampling
This
This method
method has
has the
the properties
properties of
of aa simple
simple random
random
sample,
sample, especially
especially if
if the
the list
list of
of the
the population
population
elements
elements is
is aa random
random ordering.
ordering.
Advantage:
Advantage: The
The sample
sample usually
usually will
will be
be easier
easier to
to
identify
identify than
than it
it would
would be
be if
if simple
simple random
random sampling
sampling
were
were used.
used.
Example:
Example: Selecting
Selecting every
every 100
100thth listing
listing in
in aa telephone
telephone
book
book after
after the
the first
first randomly
randomly selected
selected listing
listing
Convenience Sampling
It
It is
is aa nonprobability
nonprobability sampling
sampling technique.
technique. Items
Items are
are
included
included in
in the
the sample
sample without
without known
known probabilities
probabilities
of
of being
being selected.
selected.
The
The sample
sample is
is identified
identified primarily
primarily by
by convenience.
convenience.
Example:
Example: A
A professor
professor conducting
conducting research
research might
might use
use
student
student volunteers
volunteers to
to constitute
constitute aa sample.
sample.
Convenience Sampling
Advantage:
Advantage: Sample
Sample selection
selection and
and data
data collection
collection are
are
relatively
relatively easy.
easy.
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage: It
It is
is impossible
impossible to
to determine
determine how
how
representative
representative of
of the
the population
population the
the sample
sample is.
is.
Judgment Sampling
The
The person
person most
most knowledgeable
knowledgeable on
on the
the subject
subject of
of the
the
study
study selects
selects elements
elements of
of the
the population
population that
that he
he or
or
she
she feels
feels are
are most
most representative
representative of
of the
the population.
population.
It
It is
is aa nonprobability
nonprobability sampling
sampling technique.
technique.
Example:
Example: A
A reporter
reporter might
might sample
sample three
three or
or four
four
senators,
senators, judging
judging them
them as
as reflecting
reflecting the
the general
general
opinion
opinion of
of the
the senate.
senate.
Judgment Sampling
Advantage:
Advantage: It
It is
is aa relatively
relatively easy
easy way
way of
of selecting
selecting aa
sample.
sample.
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage: The
The quality
quality of
of the
the sample
sample results
results
depends
depends on
on the
the judgment
judgment of
of the
the person
person selecting
selecting the
the
sample.
sample.
Recommendation
It
It is
is recommended
recommended that
that probability
probability sampling
sampling methods
methods
(simple
(simple random,
random, stratified,
stratified, cluster,
cluster, or
or systematic)
systematic) be
be
used.
used.
For
For these
these methods,
methods, formulas
formulas are
are available
available for
for
evaluating
evaluating the
the goodness
goodness of
of the
the sample
sample results
results in
in
terms
terms of
of the
the closeness
closeness of
of the
the results
results to
to the
the population
population
parameters
parameters being
being estimated.
estimated.
An
An evaluation
evaluation of
of the
the goodness
goodness cannot
cannot be
be made
made with
with
non-probability
non-probability (convenience
(convenience or
or judgment)
judgment) sampling
sampling
methods.
methods.