Chapter 1

THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE

Environmental Chemistry, 9th Edition

Stanley E. Manahan
Taylor and Francis/CRC Press
2010
For questions, contact:
Stanley E. Manahan
manahans@missouri.edu

1.1 From the Sun to Fossil Fuels and

Back
Again
Early
2000s
have shown evidence of strain on
Earth's support systems
Shortages and high prices for fuel and
materials in early 2008
Leading to economic collapse
Evidence of global warming
Glaciers melting
Loss of Arctic ice cap
Stress and depletion of Earth's natural capital
Agricultural land depleted
Water sources limited
Wildlife habitat lost
2

The Brief But Spectacular Era of Fossil

Fuels
Began with coal in latter 1700s
Coal-fired steam engine as a source of power
Progressed to petroleum and natural gas
Petroleum supplies will become exhausted within
decades
New supplies of natural gas are being found
Relative
to the
human
life
on applications
Earth, the
Natural gas
is antime
ideal of
fossil
fuel for
many
era
fuels
must
soon end
Notof
allfossil
coal can
be used
because
of global warming

How it ends and what replaces it will largely determine

potential
the welfare of humankind for centuries to come

Back to the Sun for Energy, Fuel, and

Raw Materials
Direct use for solar heating and solar voltaic power
generation
Indirect use for wind, biomass, hydroelectric (solarpowered hydrologic cycle)

Photosynthetically-Produced Biomass
for Synthetic fuels
Fermentation of sugars to ethanol
Chemical conversion of lipids to synthetic diesel fuel
Chemical conversion of biomass to CO and H 2 followed
by chemical synthesis of hydrocarbons and alcohols

Several abundant sources of biomass

Crop byproducts such as corn stover
Dedicated crops such as hybrid poplar or corn stover
Highly productive algae, which may even be grown in
brackish water

1.2. The Science of Sustainability

Sustainability or sustainable development is an
economic and industrial system that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs (Bruntland
Commission 1987)
Maintenance of Earths ability to maintain an
acceptable level of human activity and consumption
over a sustained period of time.
Nobel-level breakthroughs required to achieve
sustainability (Chu, 2009)
1.Solar energy capture and conversion to electricity to
improve several-fold
2.Improved electric batteries
Capture and store electricity from intermittent
renewable sources
Practical driving range in electric vehicles
3.Improved crops to convert more solar energy to
biomass chemical energy

Environmental Science
The science of the complex interactions that occur
among the terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic, living, and
anthropological systems that compose Earth and the
surroundings that may affect living things

Green Science and Technology

The practice of sustainable science and technology

Green Chemistry
The practice of inherently safer and more
environmentally friendly chemical science

Green Engineering
Engineering practiced in a sustainable and
environmentally friendly manner

1.3 Chemistry and the Environment

Ignorant practices that led to big environmental problems

The Old Attitude: By sensible definition any by-product of a chemical operation for
which there is no profitable use is a waste. The most convenient, least expensive way
of disposing of said wasteup the chimney or down the riveris best.
(From American Chemical Industry
a History, W. Haynes,
Van Nostrand Publishers, 1954)

Up the stack

Into the
river

Out the door

Environmental chemistry has developed as

a positive force for a clean environment
Revealing problems such as by pollutant
analysis
Measures to control pollution
Foreseeing problems before they develop
Appropriate action to forestall environmental
problems
Support of other disciplines such as industrial
ecology and green chemistry employed in
environmental improvement

Toxicological chemistry relates the

chemical nature of substances to their adverse
effects on organisms

1.4 WATER, AIR, EARTH, LIFE, AND

TECHNOLOGY
Much of environmental chemistry deals with
the interchange of materials among water, air,
earth, and biological systems and the effects
of technology thereon
See Figure 1.2 (next slide)

Biogeochemical cycles describe the

interchange of matter and energy among the
various environmental spheres
Effects of organisms
Effects of humans (technology)

10

Precipitation, water vapor, hydrologic

cycle, energy, CO2, O2

Hydrosphere

Anthrosphere

Geosphere

Biomass, nutrients, H2O,

CO2, O2

Particulatemineral matter,
H2S, CO2, H2O

Atmosphere

Biosphere
Nutrients, organic matter

11

Water and the Hydrosphere

Covers 70% of Earths surface
97% in oceans
Most remaining fresh water in ice

Water plays essential roles in all

environmental spheres
Essential to life
Transfers plant nutrients from soil to roots
Dissolves minerals and forms deposits in the
geosphere
Transfer of water and energy in the
atmosphere
Many industrial uses and transfer of energy
(latent heat in steam) in the anthrosphere

12

Air and the Atmosphere

Source of essential gases
Oxygen for animals and other organisms
Carbon dioxide for plant photosynthesis
Nitrogen converted to chemically combined
form as a plant nutrient
Oxygen, nitrogen and argon for industrial
uses
Protective functions
Filters out damaging ultraviolet radiation
Regulates Earths surface temperature
within a range compatible with life
Aspects of Atmospheric Science
Movement of air masses
Heat balance
Chemical properties and reactions

13

Earth: The Geosphere

Solid iron-rich inner core/molten outer
core/mantle/crust
Crust is Earths thin outer skin (5-40 km thick)
Interacts with other spheres
Provides life support, food, minerals, fuels

Geology is the science of the geosphere

Considers mineral solids
Interaction with water
Interaction with atmosphere
Effects upon and by living organisms
Engineering geology considers human
interactions with and modifications of the
geosphere

14

The Biosphere: Living Organisms

Biology is the science of life
Deals largely with macromolecules
synthesized by organisms
Ultimate environmental concern is interaction
with life
Toxic substances in the environment affect
organisms including humans
Environmental biodegradation of toxic
substances

15

Technology and the Environment

Ways in which humans do and make things
with materials and energy
How humans construct and operate the
anthrosphere
Product of engineering based on science
Challenge is to integrate technology with
considerations of the environment and ecology
Properly applied technology can benefit the
environment
Pollution control technology
Constructed environmental features such as
artificial wetlands
Efficient energy conversion processes
Renewable energy resource utilization
Production of goods with minimum waste
High-speed, minimally polluting

16

1.5 ECOLOGY, ECOTOXICOLOGY, AND

THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is in a thin layer at the interface
of the atmosphere with the geosphere and
hydrosphere
Strong mutual interactions between organisms
and the other environmental spheres
Earths oxygen produced by organisms
Atmospheric CO2 removed by photosynthesis
Biological processes largely determine
aquatic chemistry
Geospheric rocks weathered by organisms
Sequestering solar energy and carbon as
biomass, represented {CH2O}, by
photosynthesis:

17

Ecology
Deals with the relationships between living
organisms with their physical environment and
with each other
Ecosystem
Group of organisms interacting to mutual
advantage and with their environment
Cycles of material in ecosystems
An organism lives in its habitat in the
environment
The role it plays is its niche
A population consists of the numbers of a
particular species in a habitat

18

Ecotoxicology
Toxicology refers to the detrimental effects of
poisonous chemical species (toxicants) on
organisms
Ecotoxicology refers to the detrimental effects
of toxicants on ecosystems
At several levels ranging from biological
effects to effects upon whole populations

19

1.6. ENERGY AND CYCLES OF ENERGY

Earth receives solar energy at 1,340
watts/meter2 at the top of the atmosphere
Enormous amount of incoming energy largely
in visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum
Must re-radiate this energy to outer space as
longer-wavelength infrared radiation

Light and Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation carries energy
through space at 3.00 x 108 meters/second (c,
speed of light)
In order of shortest wavelength (more
energetic) to longer wavelength (less
energetic):
gamma>X-rays>ultraviolet>visible>infrared
Characteristics of wavelength (meters),
amplitude, and frequency (, s-1 or Hertz)
= c
Amplitude
Energy: E = h where h is Plancks constant

Wavelength

Shorter wavelength.
higher frequency

Dual wave/particle nature of electromagnetic

radiation

20

Energy Flow and Photosynthesis in

Living Systems
Sun

Absorption of
solar energy
Water
(H2O)

Energy transfer through

high-energy ATP
Oxygen
(O2)

Carbon dioxide
(CO2)
Synthesis of
carbohydrate

Carbohydrate
({CH2O})

Figure 1.3. Energy conversion and transfer by

21

1.7 HUMAN IMPACT AND POLLUTION

Pollutant: Substance in greater than natural
concentration that is detrimental
Contaminants cause deviations from normal
concentration but are not pollutants unless
they have adverse effects

Receptor
Adversely
Affected by
Pollutant

Source
of Pollutant

Sink
Where
Pollutant
Ends Up

22

1.8 CHEMICAL FATE AND TRANSPORT

Human Influences, TheAnthrosphere

Atmosphere
Solid
particle

Mists

Air

Water
release
sorption
Sediment

Uptake
bioaccumulation
Release

Plant

Animals

Nutrients

Soil
Solid
Sorption

Waste

Release
Soil
Water

Organisms
Microorganisms

a
Irrigation

Interchanges of contaminants released from the anthrosphere among

various segments of the other environmental spheres and illustrations of

23

24

Fate and transport of contaminants

controlled largely by
Physical transport: Movement without reacting
or interacting with other phases
Reactivity: Including chemical or biochemical
reactions or physical interactions with other
phases

Three Major Environmental

Compartments Considered in Chemical
Fate and Transport

(1) Atmosphere

(2) Surface water

(3) Terrestrial and subsurface

25

26

Physical Transport
(1) Advection: Movement of masses of fluid
that simply carry pollutants with them
Vertical advection of air or water is called
convection
(2) Diffusive transport: Molecular diffusion,
the natural tendency of molecules to move
from regions of higher to lower
concentrations
Also called Fickian transport
Approximated by turbulent mixing such as
in flowing water

27

Reactivity
Chemical reactions
Biological uptake
Binding to and release from surfaces
Two broad categories of reactivity
(1) Chemical reactions
(2) Interphase exchange
In water, binding of soluble species to
suspended particles
In air, includes evaporation and
condensation of species
Includes biological processes

Illustration of the Mass Balance

Relationship for a Pollutant with
Respect to a Specified Compartment of
the Environment
+Mass from
sources
Mass to
- sinks

=
- Mass transported out

Change in mass
of pollutant

Source

Mass transported in

Environmental Compartment
or Control Volume Such as a
Lake

Sink

Steady state applies when there is not net

change of mass of pollutant within the control

28

29

Distribution Among Phases

Partitioning between major compartments
Partitioning between phases within a
compartment
Partitioning between water and a solid
depends upon a substances solubility or
hydrophilicity
Partitioning between water and air depends
upon vapor pressure
Sorption
Adsorption onto material surface
Absorption within body of material

30

1.9 CHEMICAL FATE AND TRANSPORT IN

THE ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, AND
GEOSPHERE
Pollutants in the Atmosphere
Volatile organic compounds transported in
atmosphere
Partitioning between air and atmospheric
particles
Soil water partition coefficient, Kd,
K d = Cs
Pollutants in the Hydrosphere
where Cs and Cw are concentrations
C
More hydrophilic compounds tend to stay inw
on solids and in water, respectively
water
Partitioning of organics onto solids depends
upon organic fraction of solids
Pollutants in the Geosphere
Transport of contaminants depends upon
porosity, nature of geospheric solids, nature
of contaminants

31

1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL MISCHIEF AND

TERRORISM
Chemistry can be used for harmful acts
Explosives, corrosives, and otherwise
damaging substances
Toxic substances
Chemistry can be used to combat terrorism
Instruments to detect harmful substances
Protective materials
Some environmental incidents have resembled
terrorist attacks
1984 Bhopal, India, release of methyl
isocyanate that killed 3,500
2003 release of toxic hydrogen sulfide with
natural gas that killed over 200 in China

32

Protection Through Green Chemistry and

Engineering
Green chemistry is safe and sustainable
chemistry
Avoids hazards that can be used to do harm
Reduces vulnerability such as interruption of
materials supplies
Avoids use, generation, or storage of
hazardous substances
Avoids severe conditions that may pose
hazards
Carefully monitor conditions for trouble

33

1.11 ENVIRONMENTAL FORENSICS

Environmental forensics deals with the legal
and medical aspects of pollution
Important in several areas
Health effects
Legal liabilities
Determining responsibilities for terrorist
attacks
Assessment of hazardous waste sites
Suitability of sites for brownfields restoration
Important aspects regarding environmental
incidents
Source Timing Extent