Review of Analog

Sensors/Transducers
Muhammad Zaigham Abbas Shah

Sensor

Measures some physical quantity, converts it in to

electrical

Transducer

Transforms a signal from one form in to another form.

Temperature
Thermocouple

An active sensor which works on the Seebeck effect

When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are

joined at both ends and one junction is made hot and
the other cold, a small electric current is produced
proportional to the difference in the temperature

Image: www.labfacility.com

Resistance Temperature Detector

Work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a

conductor changes with temperature.

According to the relation R = Ro(1 + t) where is

the temperature coefficient

Image: www.globalspec.com, www.labfacility.com

Thermistors

Made from semi-conductor material and produce a

large change in resistance for a small change in
temperature

Resistance increases or decreases depending on type

Image: www.sowparnikatthermistors.com

Comparison chart for Thermocouples, RTDs and

Thermistors *

Response curves for Thermocouples, RTDs and Thermistors *

* http://digital.ni.com/public.nsf/allkb/C50FA55B3B2F85D9862572D00083350E, Image:
www.globalspec.com

Potentiometers

Also called Pots for short

Consist of a slider terminal and two terminals
The resistance between the slider terminal
and any of the other two terminals
can be varied by rotating the slider
Two ways in which they are constructed
Wire wound- Linear
Coated- Can be linear, Logarithmic etc
Rotory pots have a varying degree of rotation(usually
270)
Used for Volume control and regulating current

Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT):

A linear displacement/position transducer that works

on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction
Consists of a primary coil and two secondary coils
which are wound 180 out of phase(one clockwise and
the other anti-clockwise. The coils are usually wound
on a hollow form and a core of moveable material.

LVDT Operation

At the mean/null(center) position, the output is zero

since an equal amount of magnetic flux cuts each of
the secondaries.
As the core is moved from one secondary to the other
the phase of the output voltage changes.
(c)
(a)

(b)

Transducers for rate of flow, speed, pressure, force

Strain Gauge
Two things to understand, stress and strain
Stress- The force applied on an object. Mathematically,
Stress()= Force(F)/Area(A)

Strain- The deformation that results from that external

force. Mathematically,
Strain()=Change in Length(L)/Original Length(L)

i.

Although Mathematically unit less, it is often represented

in inch/inch or mm/m, also measured as
microstrain(x10-6)
Three kinds of strain
Tensile- Results from a stretching stress(also called
tension)

ii.

Compressional Strain- Results from a

contracting/compressing stress

iii.

Shear Strain- Results from a shearing stress

A strain gauge is a sensor that can be used to measure strain

It changes its resistance in response to a strain
Works on the principle
R=L/A

where
R= Resistance()
= Resistibity(.m)
A= Area(m2)

The resistance change is given by

R= (2R0L)/L0

Gauge Factor
Relates resistance change and strain, it is the ratio of the
fractional change in resistance upon the applied strain(fractional
change in length)
GF= (R/R)/strain=(R/R)/(L/L)

Pressure Sensitive Effects

i.
ii.

Two kinds of pressure effects

Piezo Resistive Effect
Piezo Electric Effect

iii.

Piezo Resistive Effect:

Change of the resistance of a semiconductor when it is
applied by a mechanical pressure
The pressure causes a change in the band gap of the shells
thus varying the resistance
Mathematically,
= (/)/

Piezo Resistivity

= Change in Resistivity
= Actual Reistivity
= Applied Stress

ii.

Piezo Electric Effect:

Application of pressure produces a voltage

Observed in crystalline materials such as Quartz, Barium
titanate, tourmaline
When mechanical stress is applied, ions in the asymmetircal
crystal structure are displaced thus polarizing the unit cell
The individual effect of each unit cell adds up and polarizes the
whole crystal thus establishing a potential difference across the
crystal faces
For a Rectangular piece of crystal, the output voltage is given by
V=kFd/A
F= Force in g, k= piezo electric constant, d= thickness, A=area in
mm
Used in force, displacement,pressure measurement

Tutorials

Define Cold junction compensation for a thermocouple,

why is it important?

Name few applications of the sensors, transducers

discussed.

Check out the operation of the LM35 temperature

sensor.

Find (just name and mention purpose) of other analog

sensors that you have come across.