Air Pollution: Origin, Fate and

Effects of Pollutants

Air Pollution

Indoor
Regional
Global
Stratospheric
Sources
Effects
Treatment

Air Pollution and Public Opinion

Problems in many urban areas in late
1800s and early 1900 due to coal use
1000s of deaths attributed to air pollution
episodes in London
large number of pollution sources
restricted air volume
failure to recognize problem
water droplets of certain size

Photochemical smog: CO+NOx+HC+light

Air Pollution Standards

National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) promulated under the 1970 Clean Air
Act (CAA).
Criteria pollutants
Primary standards designed to protect
human health with an adequate margin of
safety.
Secondary standards are intended to
prevent environmental and property damage.

Air Pollution Standards

Units of Measure
review pages 73-78
g/m3 mass:volume
parts per million (ppm) volume:volume

22.414 L mol T
ppm C

/ 273 K 101.325 kPa/P2

MW 1000 L/m3
-1

where C = concentration in g/m3

m particle size

Air Pollution Standards

Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
National Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) 1970 CAA
Risk-based approach used asbestos, arsenic,
benzene, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride
and radionuclides
Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT) standards 1990 CAA
189 chemicals from 174 categories of
industrial sources being established

Control of Criteria Air Pollutants

A geographic area that meets or does better than the
primary standard is called an attainment area; areas
that don't meet the primary standard are called
nonattainment areas.
Although EPA has been regulating criteria air
pollutants since the 1970 CAA was passed, many
urban areas are classified as nonattainment for at
least one criteria air pollutant. It has been estimated
that about 90 million Americans live in nonattainment
areas.

Control of Criteria Air Pollutants

States must have State Implementation
Plans formulated and filed with US EPA.
These plans (a collection of regulations) describe
how attainment will be achieved (within a
particular time period). (Michigans:
http://www.epa.gov/ARD-R5/sips/)
States must involve the public in the approval
process before a SIP is finalized
If an SIP is not acceptable, the USEPA can
assume responsibility for enforcing the CAA in that
State.

Carbon Monoxide
Most abundant air
pollutant
Produced by incomplete
combustion
insufficient O2
low temperature
short residence time
poor mixing
Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust
http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/co.html

Carbon Monoxide
Colorless and odorless
When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in
blood to form carboxyhemoglobin,
reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
brain function reduced, heart rate
increased at lower levels
asphyxiation occurs at higher levels

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide
Typical Levels
busy roadways: 5 50 ppm
congested highways: up to 100 ppm
bars: up to 30 ppm

Vehicle emission rates:

Model year
Precontrol (before 1968)
1996-2003
2004-2006

Hydrocarbons
(grams/km)
6.59
0.155
0.0777

Carbon
monoxide
(grams/km)
52.2
2.11
1.06

Carbon Monoxide: Trends in

Levels
Air quality still an issue:
Increasing vehicle population
Increasing travel per vehicle
1980: average 9,500 miles/year
1995: average 11,800 miles/yr
Vehicle miles of travel: Increase of 3.1%/ yr

Departures from Federal standards

Greater use of light trucks (including SUVs)

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Primarily NO and NO2
NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4,
N2O5 are also known to
occur
Thermal NOx created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N2 when T
> 1000 K
Fuel NOx from
oxidation of N in fuel

http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/no2.html

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

NO has few health effects, but is oxidized
to NO2
NO2 irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections
NO2 reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
NO2 reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid acid precipitation

Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight
photochemical smog (oxidants)
primary
oxidants
produced:
ozone (O3)
formaldehyde
peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical Smog

Ozone: Health Effects

Increased incidents of respiratory
distress.
Repeated exposures to ozone:
Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
Lung inflammation
Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
Decreases in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.

Ozone: Environmental Effects

Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses (e.g.,
harsh weather).
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/airweb/ozone/greece.jpg

Ozone Revised Standards

In 1997, the 1-hour ozone standard of
0.12 parts per million (ppm) was replaced
with a new 8-hour 0.08 ppm standard.
Areas that do not meet the new 8-hour
standard will not be designated
"nonattainment" until this year.

Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

SO2, SO3, SO42
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
H2S released is
converted to SO2
10 Tg/yr natural
sources
75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources

http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/so2.html

Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects

High concentrations of SO2 can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO2, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO2 levels may result in reduced lung
function.

Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental

Effects
Acid Rain

Decreased
Visibility

http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/rockymtn.html

Particulate Matter
Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.005 100 m
General term is aerosols
Dust originates from grinding or crushing
Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
Smog used to describe air pollution
particles

Health Efffects of Particluate

Matter
Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
Large particles trapped in nose
Particles >10 m removed in
tracheobronchial system
Particles <0.5 m reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
Particles 2 4 m most effectively
deposited in lungs

Particulate Matter
Original standards did not account for size
larger particles that were not problematic
dominated
PM-2.5 (1997)
PM-10 (1987)
< 2.5 m diameter
< 10 m diameter
Similar sources, but tend
fuel combustion
to be more toxicologically
(45%)
active particles
EPA estimates new
industrial processing
standard will save
(33%)
15,000 lives/yr
Transportation
(22%)

Particulate Matter: Revised

Standards
Two new PM-2.5 standards
15 micrograms per cubic meter (g/m 3) and
65 g/m3, respectively, for the annual and 24hour standards. In addition, the form of the
24-hour standard for PM-10 was changed.
Beginning in 2002, EPA will designate areas
as nonattainment that do not meet the new
PM-2.5 standards.

Particulate Matter: Health

Effects
Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse
particles.
Coarse particles
aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as
asthma.

Fine particles

increased hospital admissions and emergency room

visits for heart and lung disease
increased respiratory symptoms and disease
decreased lung function
premature death

Particulate Matter:
Environmental Effects
Decreased visibility
Damage to paints and
building materials

http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/bryce.html

Lead
Sources:
gasoline (historical)
metals processing

Highest air Pb
concentrations
in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.

Lead: Health Effects

Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs.
Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.