AQA A2 Biology Unit 4

Populations

Specification
3.4.1 The dynamic equilibrium of populations is affected by a number of factors.
Candidates should be able to:
carry out experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management
consider ethical issues when carrying out fieldwork, chiefly those relating to the organisms
involved and their environment
analyse and interpret data relating to the distribution of organisms, recognising correlations and
causal relationships
appreciate the tentative nature of conclusions that may be drawn from such data.
interpret growth curves, survival curves and age-population pyramids
Populations
calculate
population growth
rates from data on birth rate and death rate.
Investigating
Human
Variation in
and
relate changes in the size populations
and structure of human populations to different stages
in demographic
populations
population size
ecosystems
transition.
A critical
A population
Population size
appreciation of
Population size
is all the
and structure,
some of the ways in
may vary as a
organisms of
population
which the numbers
result of
one species in
growth rate,
and distribution of
a habitat.
age-population
organisms may be
Populations of
pyramids,
investigated.
different
Random sampling
the effect of
survival rates
species form
with quadrats and
abiotic factors
and life
a community.
counting along
expectancy.
transects to obtain
Within a
interactions
quantitative data.
habitat a
The use of
between
species
percentage cover
organisms:
occupies a
and
frequency
as
interspecific
niche
measures
of
and
governed by
abundance.
intraspecific
adaptation to
competition
The use of mark
both biotic
and predation.
releaserecapture
and abiotic
for more mobile
conditions.
species.

Definitions

Abiotic: Ecological factor that makes up part of the nonbiological environment

Biotic: Ecological factor that makes up part of the living
environment
Ecosystem: More or less self contained functional unit in
ecology made up of all interacting biotic and abiotic factors in a
specific area
Population: A group of individuals of the same species that
occupy the same habitat at the same time
Species: A group of similar organisms that can breed together
to produce fertile offspring
Community: The organisms of all species that live in the same
area
Habitat: The place where an organism normally lives, which is
characterised by physical conditions and the species of other
organisms present
Niche: All conditions and resources required for an organism to

1.1 Populations and Ecosystems

The environment can include abiotic and biotic factors such
as temperature, light (abiotic), predation and competition
(biotic)
The life supporting layer of land, air and water that
surrounds the earth is known as the biosphere

Ecosystems

The ecosystem is made up of biotic and

abiotic features
There are two major processes to consider:
The flow of energy through the system
The cycling of elements within the system
There are a number of species in an
ecosystem which make up many groups of
individuals that together make up a
population

1.2 Investigating Populations

When studying a habitat the number of individuals in an individual space
needs to be counted this is the abundance
Only small samples are taken due to the time consuming nature
As long as samples are representative the conclusions will be valid

Factors to consider
when using
quadrates:

Random Sampling

Systematic sampling
along Transects

Size of quadrat: Larger species need larger quadrats, if

a species occurs in series of groups then a large number
of small quadrats is used
Number of samples: The larger the number the more
reliable the results
Position of quadrat: Statistically significant results are
obtained by random sampling
To avoid bias random sampling is used
1. Lay out two long tape measures at right angles along
two sides of the study area
2. Obtain series of coordinates by using random
numbers taken from a computer
3. Place a quadrat at the intersection of each pair of
coordinates and record the species within it
A line transect can be used in which a string/tape is
stretched across the ground and any organism that
passes the line is recorded
A belt transect is a strip marked using a second parallel
line, species within the belt and between the lines are
recorded

Measuring
Abundance

Mark-releaserecapture

Analysing data

Random sampling and counting along transects can obtain

measures of abundance in several ways:
Frequency: Likelihood of a particular species occurring in a
quadrat. It gives quick idea of species present and general
distribution within an area but doesnt provide density or
distribution of species
Percentage Cover: Estimate of the area within a quadrat. Useful
where species is particularly abundant, data can be collected rapidly
bur it occurs in overlapping layers
To obtain reliable results the sample size needs to be large and a
mean needs to be collected
Due to animals being mobile this method is used
Once an animal is caught it is marked then released, later on more
individuals are captured and the number marked is recorded
The technique relies on assumptions:
Proportion of marked to unmarked individuals in the second sample
is the same as the proportion of marked to unmarked individuals in
the population as a whole
The marked individuals released from the first sample distribute
themselves in sufficient time
The population has a definite boundary so no immigration or
emigration
There are few deaths and births
The marking is not toxic or makes the animal more liable to
predation
The mark or label is not lost or rubbed off
The first stage is to present data in a table or graph so data can be
compared and then calculate standard deviation
Correlation and causation can be analysed
Statistical tests can also be used to calculate strength and direction
of any correlation
Spearman rank, chi squared and standard error can be used

Population = Total number of individuals in the first sample X

Individuals in the second sample
Number of marked individuals recaptured

Type of Trap

Method of Marking

Pitfall trap: Insects, Small Mammals

Microchip

Electrofishing : Fish

Paint or permanent marker onto

animal

Cage set up with food in: Mice,

Voles

Photo showing unique markings

Removal method: blocks of part of

environment so can collect fish

Visible implant or tag

Glue Trap: Rodents

Toe Clippings: Vertebrates

Sweepnet moved through plants:

Ground insects

Fur Removal

Wire funnel trap: Insects in tall

vegetation

1.3 Variation in Population Size

Population Growth Curves

There are 3 phases:

1. Period of slow growth as the initially small

number of individuals reproduce to slowly build
up their numbers
2. Period of rapid growth where the ever
increasing number of individuals continue to
reproduce. The population size doubles during
each interval
3. Period when population growth declines until
size becomes stable, the decline can be due to
food shortage or predation

2.
1.

3.

Population Size
Population size
depends on limiting
factors:

Abiotic Factors

Mineral ions
Light
Temperature
Oxygen
Food

Temperature: Optimum temperature needed

for best survival as otherwise enzymes work
slower and metabolic rate is reduced due to
denaturation
Light: Ultimate source of energy, the stronger
the light intensity the faster the rate of
photosynthesis causing a faster growth of plants
thus a larger population
pH: Optimum pH needed otherwise enzymes
dont work to full potential as denatured
Water/Humidity: In low water areas only
species well adapted to dry conditions survive.
The more humid an area the slower the rate of
transpiration

1.4 Competition
Intraspeci
fic
Competiti
on

Interspeci
fic
Competiti
on

Between the same species

Compete for food, water, mates
Greater the resources availability the larger the population

Between different species

For food, light and water
If two species occupy in the same niche one will normally have
a competitive advantage
The population of the stronger species will gradually increase
while the other diminishes eventually to be removed:
Competitive exclusion principle
No species can occupy the same niche indefinitely when
resources are limiting

Intraspecific Competition

Interspecific Competition

1.5 Predation
The relationship
between prey and
predator:

Predators eat their prey, reducing prey

population
The predators become in greater competition
with each other over the prey left
Predator population is reduced causing fewer
prey to be eaten
The prey population increases
Due to more prey the predator population
then increases

The fluctuations in
population as also due
to disease and climatic
factors not just
predation
Population crashes
create selection
pressure where
survival of the fittest
occurs, the survivors
will reproduce

The population then evolves to be better

adapted to harsh conditions

1.6 Human Populations

There has been an
explosion in human
population due to:

The development of agriculture

The development of manufacturing and trade that
created industrial revolution

War, disease and famine have only been temporary reversals in the upward
trend

Factors affecting Growth

Birth rate
Death rate
Immigration: Individuals join a new population
Emigration: Individuals leave a population

Population Growth = (Births + Immigration) (Deaths + Emigration)

Percentage Population Growth Rate: Population change during the period

Population at the start of the period X
100

Birth Rate Factors

Birth Rate:
number of births per year
Total population in the
same year X1000

Death Rate Factors

Death Rate:
number of deaths per year
Total population in the
same year X1000

Economic conditions: Lower

capita income tend to have
higher birth rates
Cultural/Religious: Some
religions oppose birth control
Social pressure: Large families
can improve social standing
Birth Control: Contraception
isn't always available
Political factors: Government
influence births via education and
taxation

Age Profile: The more elderly

people the higher the death rate
Life expectancy: ECDLs have
lower life expectancies
Food supply: Need a balanced
diet
Sanitation: Reduces water-borne
deaths e.g. cholera
Medical care availability
Natural disasters: Higher death
rates near droughts
War

Population
Structure

Population
pyramids can be
used to plot
populations:

Survival Rates

Well economically developed countries

have a higher life expectancy, this has
led to change in societies from short life
expectancies to long life expectancies
causing demographic transition

Stable Population: Birth and death

rate are balanced so no decrease or
increase in population
Increasing Population: High birth rate
(shows wider base) and fewer old
people (narrow apex)
Decreasing Population: Lower birth
rate (narrow base) and low mortality
rate so more elderly people (wider
apex)

Stable
Population

Increasing
Population

Plotting as survival curve allows life

expectancy to be calculated

Decreasing

AQA A2 Biology Unit 4

ATP & Photosynthesis

Specification
3.4.2 ATP provides the immediate source of energy for biological processes.
3.4.3 In photosynthesis, energy is transferred to ATP in the light-dependent reaction and the ATP
is utilised in the light-independent reaction.
Candidates should be able to explain how growers apply a knowledge of limiting factors in enhancing
temperature, carbon dioxide concentration and light intensity in commercial glasshouses. They should also be
able to evaluate such applications using appropriate data.
LightLightLimiting
dependent
ATP
independent
factors
reaction
reaction
The
synthesis of
ATP from
ADP and
phosphate
its role as
the
immediate
source of
energy for
biological
processes.
Photosynthes
is
The lightindependen
t and lightdependent
reactions in
a typical C3
plant.

light energy
excites
electrons in
chlorophyll
energy from
these excited
electrons
generates ATP
and reduced
NADP
the
production of
ATP involves
electron
transfer
associated with
the electron
transfer chain
in chloroplast
membranes
photolysis of
water produces
protons,
electrons and
oxygen.

carbon dioxide is
accepted by
ribulose
bisphosphate
(RuBP) to form two
molecules of
glycerate 3phosphate (GP)
ATP and reduced
NADP are required
for the reduction of
GP to triose
phosphate
RuBP is
regenerated in the
Calvin cycle
Triose phosphate
is converted to
useful organic
substances.

The principle
of limiting
factors as
applied to
the effects of
temperature,
carbon
dioxide
concentratio
n and light
intensity on
the rate of
photosynthes
is.

Definitions

ATP: An activated nucleotide found in all living cells that acts as

an energy carrier
Endothermic: Reaction that requires energy
Activation Energy: Minimum energy required to bring about a
chemical reaction
Hydrolysis: The breaking of large molecules to small using water
Condensation: Chemical process where two molecules form a
larger molecule
Electron carrier molecules: A chain of carrier molecules along
which electrons pass, releasing energy in the form of ATP
Thylakoids: Series of flattened membranous sacs in a chloroplast
that contain chlorophyll and the associated molecules needed for
the light-dependent reaction
NADP: Molecule that carries electrons produced in the lightdependent reaction
Stomata: Pores surrounded by guard cells that allow gas

2.1 Energy and ATP

All living organisms require energy to stay alive
Plants use solar energy from the sun to combine water and CO in
photosynthesis
The organic molecules formed are broken down by plants and animals
into ATP

Energy

Why Energy is Needed

Energy can take many forms such as light and kinetic

Energy cannot be created or destroyed
It is measured in joules(J)
It can change from one form to another
Metabolism: All reactions in the body require
energy
Movement: For in and out of the body itself
Active Transport: Ions and molecules need to be
transported against the concentration gradient
across plasma membranes
Repair and Division
Production of Substances: Such as enzymes and
hormones
Maintenance of body temperature: Mammals
and birds are endothermic and need energy to
replace that lost to the environment

Energy and Metabolism

1. Light energy from the sun is converted by plants into chemical energy during
photosynthesis
2. The chemical energy from photosynthesis, organic molecules, is converted
into ATP during respiration
3. ATP Is used by cells

Storing ATP

ATP has 3 phosphate groups which have unstable bonds thus a low activation
energy so are easily broken
Energy is released when the bonds break
The reaction uses water to is a hydrolysis reaction
ATP + HO ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate) + E (Energy)

Synthesis of ATP
Adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP can form ATP again in a condensation
reaction. It occurs in 3 ways:
Photophosphorylation: In chlorophyll containing plant cells during
photosynthesis
Oxidative Phosphorylation: In the mitochondria of plants and animal cells during
electron transport
Substrate-level Phosphorylation: Plant and animal cells when phosphate groups
are transferred from donor molecules to ADP making ATP
In the first two ATP is synthesised using energy released during electron transfer
along an electron carrier chain

Roles of ATP
ATP is the immediate energy source as its energy store is not long
lasting due to the instability of the phosphate bonds
Cells dont store large quantities of ATP however ATP is rapidly re formed
from ADP and inorganic phosphate easily making it go further
ATP is better than glucose as it releases smaller more manageable
quantities of energy
The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is a single reaction releasing energy
immediately whereas the process for glucose is much longer
ATP cannot be stored so is continuously made in the mitochondria, cells
such as muscle fibres contain large mitochondria due to the required
energy

ATP as a source of
energy

Metabolic Processes: Forming polysaccharides from

monosaccharides, Polypeptides from amino acids and
DNA/RNA from nucleotides
Movement: Provides energy for muscle contraction
allowing the muscle filaments to slide over each other
Active Transport: ATP provides energy to change the
shape of carrier proteins in plasma membranes
allowing molecules to move against the concentration
gradient
Secretion: Forms lysosomes needed for secretion of
cell products
Activation of molecules: When a phosphate
molecule is transferred from ATP to another it makes it
more reactive lowering activation energy. This allows
enzyme catalysed reactions to occur more readily

Absorption of Light Energy

Light energy is
captured and is
transferred to
chlorophyll a
molecules.
Electrons in the outer
shell of the chlorophyll
a molecule are excited.
The electrons are
passed through a series
of carrier molecules
and are used to power,
Photolysis
Reduction of NADP

3.1 Photosynthesis
Leaf Structure

Photosynthesis Outline

Structure of
Chloroplast

Large surface area

Leaves minimise overlapping
Thin so short diffusion path
Transparent cuticle and epidermis let light through to
photosynthetic mesophyll cells
Long narrow mesophyll cells packed with chloroplast
Large number of stomata able to open and close in light
intensities
Air spaces allow diffusion of CO and O
Xylem brings water and phloem carries away sugars
6CO + 6HO C6H12O + 6O2
1. Capturing light energy by chloroplast pigments e.g.
chlorophyll
Light-dependent Reaction: Light converted into chemical
energy, an electron flow is created and causes water to
split (photolysis) into protons, electrons and oxygen.
Products are reduced NADP, ATP and oxygen
Light-independent Reaction: Protons are used to reduce
carbon dioxide to produce sugars and other organic
molecules
Grana formed from thylakoids house the light dependent
stage. They contain chlorophyll and also attach to each
other via inter-granal lamellae
Stroma is a fluid filled matrix where the light
independent reaction occurs

ADP + P
e-

e-

PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

ATP

e-

e-

PHOTOLYSIS

ligh
t

2H2O
Chlorophy
ll
a

4H+ + e - +
O2

THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT
4NADP 4NADPH
REACTION

3.2 The Light-Dependent

Reaction
When a substance loses electrons it is oxidised

When a substance gains electrons it is reduced

The Making of
ATP

Photolysis of
Water

When chlorophyll absorbs light energy it causes a pair of electrons in

it to become a higher energy level, they are in an excited state
The electrons then leave the chlorophyll and are taken up by an
electron carrier
The chlorophyll has become oxidised and the electron carrier
reduced
Via a series of oxidation-reduction reactions the electrons pass along
the electron carriers as a transfer chain is formed in the membranes
of the thylakoids
Each new carrier has a slightly lower energy level than the one
before causing the electrons to lose energy
This energy is used to combine an inorganic phosphate molecule
ADP
with
Due to
theforming
lose of ATP
electrons the chlorophyll they must be replaced
The electrons are replaced via water molecules being split using light
energy
2HO 4H+ + 4e- +O
The hydrogen ions are taken up by NADP causing it to be reduced
The reduced NADP and electrons from the chlorophyll enter the light
independent reaction
Reduced NADP gives the plant a source of chemical energy
The oxygen by-product from the photolysis of water is diffused or
used in respiration

Photolysis
Water molecules are
split using energy from
excited electrons in
chlorophyll a molecules.

2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2

Oxygen is released into
the atmosphere.
Hydrogen ions and
electrons are now
available to be used to
produce a reducing
agent.

Site of Light-Dependent
Reaction
Origin: Thylakoids of Chloroplast
Adaptations of Chloroplast:
Thylakoid membranes provide a large surface
area for chlorophyll attachment, electron
carriers and enzymes
Network of proteins in the grana hold the
chlorophyll in a precise manner for maximum
absorption of light
Granal membranes have enzymes for ATP
production
Contain both DNA and ribosomes so there is

Reduction of NADP
Electrons and Hydrogen ions
produced during photolysis
are used to reduce NADP to
Reduced NADP (NADPH).
Excited electrons and
hydrogen ions are
transferred to NADP.
NADP + H + + e- NADPH
NADPH can donate
electrons and hydrogen ions
to carbon dioxide and so is
a reducing agent.

3.3 The Light-Independent

Reaction
It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts
It doesnt require light to occur
ATP and reduced NADP are used to reduce carbon dioxide

The Stages

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the

leaf through stomata and dissolves in water around
the walls of the mesophyll cells. It then diffuses
through the plasma membrane, cytoplasm and
chloroplast membranes to the stroma
In the stroma, CO combines with ribulose
bisphosphate(RuBP) using an enzyme
Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) is formed, 2 molecules
per one combination
ATP and reduced NADP activate the GP into triose
phosphate(TP)
The NADP is reformed and goes back to the light
dependent reaction to be reduced again by accepting
more hydrogen
Some TP is converted into useful organic substances
such as glucose
Most TP is used to regenerate RuBP using ATP from
the light dependent reaction

Photophosphorylation
Energy from the
excited electrons
is used to make
ATP.
A phosphate
group is added to
ADP.
ADP + P --energy from excited electrons ATP

Products of the Light Dependent

Stage
Photolysis
H+ ions
Electrons
Oxygen

Used to produce
NADPH

Photophosphorylation
ATP

The Calvin Cycle

Site of the Light-Independent

Reaction
The chloroplast is adapted for this reaction as:
The fluid of the stroma contains enzymes
needed
The fluid surrounds the grana so the products
can diffuse quickly to it
It contains both DNA and ribosomes so can
easily manufacture proteins needed

3.4 Factors affecting

Photosynthesis
A limiting factor restricts the rate at which a process can
Limiting Factors

Light Intensity

Carbon Dioxide

Temperature

occur
It is the slowest reaction that determines the overall rate
of photosynthesis
At any given moment, the rate of a physiological process
is limited by the factor that is at its least favourable
value
When light is the limiting factor photosynthesis is directly
proportional to light intensity
As light intensity increases the volume of oxygen
produced and carbon dioxide absorbed will increase till it
balances the oxygen absorbed and carbon dioxide
produced
This point is the compensation point due to no net
exchange of gases into or out of the plant
When increasing light intensity has no effect on rate of
there is another limiting factor
photosynthesis
0.1% CO will give the optimum concentration for
photosynthesis to occur
CO concentration affects enzyme activity especially the
enzyme that catalyses the combination of ribulose
bisphosphate and carbon dioxide in the light independent
reaction
From 0 to 25C the rate of photosynthesis doubles for
each 10C
25C is the optimum temperature and after this the rate
of photosynthesis declines due to enzymes becoming
denatured
Photosynthesis isn't purely photochemical as if it was it
wouldnt be affected by temperature

The Light-Independent Reaction

Does not require light energy.
However, requires the products produced in the
light-dependent reaction, therefore
photosynthesis cannot occur without light energy.

Takes place in the stroma.

Enzyme controlled, therefore it is affected by
temperature.
Uses energy from ATP, and the electrons and
hydrogen ions from NADPH to reduce CO 2 to
glucose.

Fixing Carbon Dioxide

Ribulose Biphosphate
(RuBP), a 5 carbon
molecule, combines
with carbon dioxide via
the enzyme RuBISCO.
This forms 2 molecules
of glycerate-3phosphate (GP), a 3
carbon organic acid.

Reducing glycerate-3-phosphate
(GP)
NADPH and ATP from the lightdependent reaction are
required for this stage.
NADPH transfers electrons and
hydrogen ions to GP to form 2
molecules of Triose phosphate.
The energy for this is provided
by the ATP.
The NADPH has now been
oxidised back to NADP and can
be reused in the lightdependent reaction.
The ATP has lost energy and so
returns to ADP + P which can
also be reused in the lightindependent stage.

Producing Glucose and Regenerating

RuBP
Producing Glucose
For every 6 CO2
molecules entering
the cycle, 12 Triose
phosphates will be
produced.
2 of these molecules
will be converted into
glucose.

Regenerating RuBP
Of the 12 Triose
phosphates that are
produced, 10 will be
used to regenerate
RuBP.

Law of Limiting Factors: The overall rate of the process

will be limited by the factor which is at the least favourable
value

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Light Intensity
At low light intensities, the rate of
photosynthesis is directly proportional
to the light intensity.
Because as more light becomes
available, more chlorophyll molecules
can absorb light so more electrons are
excited leading to photolysis and
photophosphorylation.
More ATP and NADPH are produced so
the light-independent reactions can
occur at a higher rate so more product
is produced.
Eventually a maximum rate is reached
and so increasing light intensity has
no effect so the graph levels off.
This can be because all available
chlorophyll molecules are absorbing
light. Or some other factor is now the
limiting factor.

Temperature
When light is not a limiting factor (i.e.
high light intensities), increasing the
temperature increases the rate of
photosynthesis.
Above the optimum temperature, any
further increase causes the rate to
decrease rapidly.
Because the Calvin Cycle is enzyme
controlled, when the temperature
increases both enzymes and substrates
gain kinetic energy, so more collisions
occur, so more enzyme substrate
complexes form, so more product forms.
When the temperature exceeds the
optimum, the enzymes will denature and
the specific shape of the active site will
change and no longer be
complementary to the substrate so
fewer enzyme-substrate complexes can
form.

Carbon Dioxide
Concentration
At low CO2 levels an increase in
concentration causes a directly
proportional increase in the rate
of photosynthesis.
A maximum rate is eventually
reached and further increase has
no effect and so the graph levels
off.
This is because atmospheric CO2
levels are lower than the
optimum value so when
concentration is increased more
CO2 is absorbed so more product
is made.
Eventually, there is no more
RuBP available to absorb
anymore CO2 so there is no
further effect.

IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL

GLASSHOUSE MANAGEMENT

What does glasshouse cultivation

allow?
Better yields can be achieved
because conditions for
photosynthesis can be kept at an
optimum.
Crops can be grown out of season all
year providing a better economic
return.
Crops can be grown in regions where
they might not grow well naturally.

Factors to be Considered
For maximum yields to be achieved, limiting factors must be kept at an optimum
because the faster the plant photosynthesises the more carbohydrates it
produces which means the maximum yield will be achieved in the shortest time.
Carbon dioxide levels
High levels of CO 2 are the optimum however if the levels are too high over a long period of
time then the stomata will close resulting in a drop in the rate of photosynthesis. A
compromise level must therefore be used.

Temperature
An optimum temperature should be used to ensure that the plants photosynthesise rapidly
without any damage to cells.

Water
Need to be well watered to ensure the stomata remain open to absorb CO 2. However the
soil must not become waterlogged as it will reduce the uptake of mineral by active
transport. The plants must not become to wet either as this will promote fungal disease to
spread.

Light
Artificial lighting is used when natural light intensity falls. Specific wavelengths are chosen
so they are absorbed by the plants (i.e. red and blue).

Minerals
Soil must be supplemented with essential minerals. Potassium is particularly important in
stomatal mechanisms and so must be kept at an optimum.

AQA A2 Biology Unit 4

Respiration

Specification
3.4.4 In respiration, glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and
the remaining steps in the mitochondria. ATP synthesis is
associated with the electron transfer chain in the membranes of
mitochondria.
Aerobic Respiration
glycolysis takes place
in the cytoplasm and
involves the oxidation
of glucose to pyruvate
with a net gain of ATP
and reduced NAD
pyruvate combines
with coenzyme A in
the link reaction to
produce
acetylcoenzyme A
in a series of
oxidation-reduction
reactions the Krebs
cycle generates
reduced coenzymes
and ATP by
substrate-level
phosphorylation,
and carbon dioxide
is lost

Aerobic
Respiration Conc
acetylcoenzyme A is
effectively a two
carbon molecule that
combines with a four
carbon molecule to
produce a six carbon
molecule which
enters the Krebs
cycle
synthesis of ATP by
oxidative
phosphorylation is
associated with the
transfer of electrons
down the electron
transport chain and
passage of protons
across mitochondrial
membranes.

Anaerobic
respiration

Glycolysis
followed by the
production of
ethanol or
lactate and the
regeneration of
NAD in anaerobic
respiration.

Definitions

Hydrolysis: Breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones by the

addition of water
Activation Energy: Energy required to bring about a chemical reaction
Oxidation: Lose of Electrons
Glycolysis: First part of cellular respiration in which glucose is broken
down anaerobically in the cytoplasm to 2 molecules of pyruvate
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: The formation of ATP by the direct
transfer of a phosphate group from a reactive intermediate to ADP
Aerobic: Connected with the presence of oxygen, aerobic respiration
requires oxygen to release energy from glucose and other foods
Adenosine Triphosphate: An activated nucleotide found in all living cells
that acts as an energy carrier.
Redox: Reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place
Krebs Cycle: Series of aerobic biochemical reactions in the matrix of the
mitochondria of most eukaryotic cells by which energy is obtained through
the oxidation of acetylcoenzyme A produced in the breakdown of glucose
NAD: (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) Molecule that carries
electrons and hydrogen ions during aerobic respiration

4.1 Respiration Overview

Glucose cannot be used directly by cells as an energy source so they use ATP

There are two different

forms of respiration:

Aerobic Respiration: requires oxygen and produces

carbon dioxide, water and much ATP
Anaerobic Respiration ((fermentation): Takes
place in the absence of oxygen and produces lactate
(inn animals) or ethanol and carbon dioxide in plants,
very little ATP is produced

Aerobic Respiration steps:

Glycolysis: Splitting of the 6 carbon glucose

molecule into 2 3-carbon pyruvate molecules
Link Reaction: Conversion of the 3-carbon pyruvate
into carbon dioxide and a 2-carbon molecule called
acetylcoenzyme A
Krebs Cycle: Introduction of acetylcoenzyme A into
a cycle of oxidation-reduction reactions that yield
some ATP and a large number of electrons
Electron Transport Chain: Use of the electrons
produced in the Krebs Cycle to synthesis ATP with
water produced as a by-product

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the initial stage in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Occurs in the cytoplasm of all living cells
A hexose sugar is split into 2 molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate
Activation of Glucose by phosphorylation: Glucose
is made more reactive by adding 2 phosphate
molecules, these come from the hydrolysis of 2 ATP
molecules to ADP. This provides energy to activate the
glucose as the activation energy has been lowered
Splitting of the Phosphorylated glucose: Each
glucose molecule is split into 2 3-carbon molecules
known as triose phosphate
It has four stages:
Oxidation of Triose Phosphate: Hydrogen is removed
from each triose phosphate molecule and transferred to
a hydrogen-carrier molecule (NAD) to form reduced NAD
Production of ATP: Enzyme controlled reactions
convert each triose phosphate into another 3-carbon
molecule called pyruvate, 2 molecules of ATP are
regenerated from ADP
2 molecules of ATP
2 molecules of reduced NAD
Energy Yield:
2 Molecules pyruvate
As glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells it doesnt require an organelle or
membrane for it to occur
It doesnt require oxygen and without oxygen pyruvate is converted to lactate or
ethanol by anaerobic respiration

Glycolysis
Glycolysis takes place in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Glucose is first phosphorylated by 2
phosphate groups from 2 molecules
of ATP to produce 2 molecules of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GALP).
GALP is then oxidised and
dephosphorylated into pyruvate.
In this process, the phosphate groups
are transferred to ADP producing 2
molecules of ATP. A hydrogen is
transferred to a molecule of NAD
producing NADH.

The net yield of glycolysis per

glucose is
2ATP
2NADH
2 pyruvate

The pyruvate produced then

diffuses into the mitochondria.

1 x Glucose
2ATP
2ADP +
2P
2 x Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
4ADP +
4P

2NAD

4ATP
2 x Pyruvate

2NADH

4.2 The Link Reaction

For pyruvate molecules to enter the Krebs cycle they need to by oxidised
Occurs in the mitochondria
Pyruvate produced in the cytoplasm is actively transported into the matrix of
mitochondria

Pyruvate undergoes a
series of reactions:

Hydrogen is removed from the pyruvate, the

hydrogen is accepted by NAD to form reduced NAD
2-carbon molecule, acetyl group, is formed and then
combines with coenzyme A ((CoA) to produce
acetylcoenzyme A
A carbon dioxide molecule is formed from each
pyruvate

Pyruvate + NAD + CoA acetyl CoA + reduced NAD + CO

The Link Reaction

Takes place in the matrix.
Pyruvate undergoes oxidative
decarboxylation.
Oxidation

2 x Pyruvate
NAD

Electrons and hydrogen from the pyruvate

are transferred to NAD producing NADH.

Decarboxylation
Carbon dioxide is removed which converts
the pyruvate into acetate.

The acetate then combines with

CoenzymeA to produce Acetyl
CoenzymeA.
Since 2 molecules of pyruvate were
produced in glycolysis, the net yield of
the link reaction per glucose is
2 Acetyl CoenzymeA
2NADH
2 Carbon dioxide

NADH
Carbon
dioxide

Coenzyme
A

Acetyl
CoenzymeA

The Krebs Cycle

Series of oxidation-reduction reactions in the matrix of mitochondria
2-carbon acetylcoenzyme A from the link reaction combines with 4carbon molecule to produce a 6-carbon molecule
The 6-carbon molecule loses carbon dioxide and hydrogen to give a
Process:
4-carbon molecule and a single ATP molecule produced as a result of
substrate-level phosphorylation
The 4-carbon molecule can now be combined with another
acetylcoenzyme A to repeat the cycle
Reduced coenzymes e.g. NAD/FAD have the potential to produce ATP
molecules
Products:
1 molecule of ATP
3 molecules of carbon dioxide
Due to 2 pyruvate molecules being produced from each original glucose the yield of a
single glucose molecule is double the quantities above
Major role in photosynthesis and respiration as carry hydrogen atoms
from one molecule to another e.g.
NAD, important throughout respiration
FAD, important in the Krebs cycle
Coenzymes: some
enzymes require to NADP, important in photosynthesis
function
NAD is the most important carrier, it works with dehydrogenase
enzymes that catalyse the removal of hydrogen ions from substrates
and transfers them to other molecules such as hydrogen carriers
oxidative
phosphorylation
involved
It breaks in
down
macromolecules
into smaller ones e.g. pyruvate into
carbon dioxide
It produces hydrogen atoms carried by NAD to the electron transport
chain for oxidative phosphorylation . This leads to the production of
Significance of the
ATP for metabolic energy in the cell
Krebs Cycle
It regenerates 4-carbon molecule that combines with acetylcoenzyme
A
It is a source of intermediate compounds used by cells to

The Krebs Cycle

Takes place in the matrix.

Closed cycle of enzyme controlled reactions.
Provides a continuous supply of reduced
electron carriers for the electron transport
chain.
AcetylCoA combines with a 4-C compound to
produce citric acid, a 6-C compound.
NADH
The citric acid then undergoes

A decarboxylation reaction which removes

carbon dioxide.
A series of oxidation reactions which remove
hydrogen ions and electrons. H + ions and e are
picked up by NAD and FAD and they become
NADH and FADH.

At the end of the cycle the 4-C compound is

recycled so the cycle can continue.
Since each glucose molecule produced 2
molecules of pyruvate and so 2 molecules of
AcetylCoA, the yield per glucose for the Krebs
cycle is

4 carbon dioxide
2FADH
6NADH
2ATP

ADP

NADH

ATP

FADH

NADH

4.3 Electron Transport

Chain
Occurs in the mitochondria

Enzymes are attached to the cristae that are involved in the electron transport chain

Synthesis of ATP

Importance of
Oxygen

Hydrogen atoms produced in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle combine

with coenzyme NAD and FAD that are attached to the cristae
Reduced NAD and FAD donate the electrons of the hydrogen atom to
the first molecule in the electron transport chain
This releases the protons from the hydrogen atoms and these are
actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane
The electrons pass along the chain via oxidation-reduction reactions
in which they lose energy that combines ADP and an inorganic
phosphate to make ATYP, remaining energy is given off as heat
The protons accumulate in the space between the mitochondrial
membranes before they diffuse back into the matrix through special
protein channels
At the end electrons combine with the protons and oxygen to form
water
It is the final acceptor of hydrogen atoms
Without it the hydrogen ions and electrons would back up along the
chain and respiration would cease
Cyanide is a non-competitive inhibitor of the final enzyme in the
electron transport chain
It catalyses the addition of the hydrogen ions and electrons to oxygen
to form water
Its inhibition causes hydrogen ions and electrons to accumulate on
the carriers stopping cellular respiration

Electron Transport Chain

Found on the cristae of the mitochondria
which provide a large surface area for this
to take place.
The electron carriers are arranged in
descending energy levels.
When electrons pass through the carriers,
the energy released is used to move
hydrogen ions from the matrix into the
intermembrane space.
This creates a large concentration gradient
of H+ ions and so they diffuse back into the
mitochondrial membrane by diffusion via
ATP synthase.
As the H+ ions diffuse through the enzyme,
they attach P groups to ADP to produce ATP.
At the end of the chain, the electrons are
picked up by the terminal electron acceptor,
which is oxygen, to produce water.
2e - + 2H + + O2 H2O
This process is called oxidative
phosphorylation.

4.4 Anaerobic Respiration

Without oxygen the Krebs Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain cannot occur

Only glycolysis is a source of ATP, for it to continue its products of pyruvate and
hydrogen must be constantly removed

The hydrogen must be released from the reduced NAD in order to regenerate NAD
as if it wasnt converted no NAD could take up the newly produced hydrogen from
glycolysis and it would stop

The replenishment of NAD is achieved by pyruvate accepting hydrogen from the

reduced NAD

Production of
Ethanol

Bacteria, fungi and plants can produce ethanol

The pyruvate molecule formed in glycolysis loses a molecule of
carbon dioxide and accepts hydrogen from reduced NAD to
produce ethanol
Yeast is grown in anaerobic conditions to produce ethanol for
brewing

Pyruvate + reduced NAD Ethanol + Carbon

Anaerobic respiration I dioxide
+ NAD
animals leads
to lactate production in

Production of
Lactate

order to overcome temporary shortage of oxygen

Lactate production occurs most commonly in muscles as a
result of strenuous exercise as there is not enough oxygen
being supplied causing an oxygen debt
Reduced NAD must be removed in order for energy to be
released
This is achieved as each pyruvate molecule produced takes
up 2 hydrogen atoms from the reduced NAD produced in
glycolysis to form lactate
Lactate needs to be oxidised back to pyruvate
It can either further to release energy or converted into
glycogen
Lactate build up can cause cramp and muscle fatigue.
Muscles do have a certain tolerance however it has to be
removed by the blood and taken to the liver to be converted
to glycogen

Energy Yields

In anaerobic respiration, pyruvate is converted to either

ethanol or lactate.
Therefore in anaerobic respiration neither the Krebs cycle nor
the electron transport chain can take place
The only ATP that can be produced anaerobic respiration is
formed by glycolysis which is a very small amount compared to
aerobic respiration

Pyruvate + reduced NAD lactate + NAD

1x
Glucose
2ADP +
2P

2NAD

2ATP

2NADH

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
2x
Pyruvate

2NADH
2NAD

2 x Lactic
Acid

Anaerobic Respiration
When oxygen isnt available, the electron transport
chain cannot operate so the initial supply of NAD run
out.
To regenerate this, pyruvate produced during
glycolysis must be reduced.
Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid in animal cells.
Pyruvate + NADH Lactic Acid
The net yield from anaerobic respiration is simply the
2ATP produced in glycolysis and is therefore much
less energy efficient.
In some plants and microbes, pyruvate is converted
into ethanol.
Pyruvate + NADH Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + NAD

AQA A2 Biology Unit 4

Nutrient Cycles

Specification

3.4.6
Chemical
elements
are
recycled
in
ecosystems.
Microorganisms play a key role in recycling these elements.
Candidates should be able to analyse, interpret and evaluate data
relating to evidence of global warming and its effects on the yield of crop
plants, the life-cycles and numbers of insect pests, the distribution and
numbers of wild animals and plants.
Candidates should be able to analyse, interpret and evaluate data
Nutrient
relating to eutrophication.
Carbon
Nitrogen

cycles

The role of
microorganisms in
the carbon and
nitrogen cycles in
sufficient detail to
illustrate the
processes of
saprobiotic
nutrition,
ammonification,
nitrification,
nitrogen fixation
and denitrification.

The importance of
respiration,
photosynthesis and
human activity in
giving rise to shortterm fluctuation
and long-term
change in global
carbon dioxide
concentration.
The roles of carbon
dioxide and
methane in
enhancing the
greenhouse effect
and bringing about
global warming.

The environmental
issues arising from
the use of fertilisers.

Leaching and
eutrophication.

Definitions
Active Transport: Movement of a substance across a membrane from a
region of low concentration to high concentration using ATP
Aerobic: In the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic: Without oxygen
Biomass: Total mass of living material in a specific area at a given time,
usually measured as dry mass since water value is variable
Consumers: Organism that obtains energy by eating another
Decomposer: An organism, e.g. fungus that breaks down organic material.
Ecosystem: Unit in ecology made up of all interacting biotic and abiotic
factors in a specific area
Greenhouse Gas: Such as methane and carbon dioxide, they cause heat to
be trapped in the atmosphere raising the Earths temperature
Niches: All conditions and resources required for an organism to survive,
reproduce and maintain population
Oxidation: Chemical reaction causing the loss of electrons
Producers: Organism that synthesises organic molecules from simple
inorganic ones
Saprobiotic Microorganisms (Saprophyte): Organism that obtains food

Basic Nutrients Cycle

The flow of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen

is cyclic
Nutrients

When both the

producer and
consumer die
saprobiotic
microorganism
s break down
the molecules
releasing the
nutrients

taken up by
producers
(plants) as
simple
inorganic
molecules

The nutrients
are then
passed along
a food chain

Producers
incorporates
the nutrient
into complex
organic
molecules

The producer
is eaten and
nutrients
pass to the
consumers

6.1 The Carbon Cycle

The main source of carbon for terrestrial
organisms is carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
Photosynthetic organisms remove it from
the air to form macromolecules e.g.
carbohydrates, fats and proteins
Respiration returns carbon dioxide back to
the air
The concentration of CO is higher at night
than day due to no photosynthesis
occurring while respiration still occurs

The Increase in Carbon Dioxide

Main Reasons due to
human activities:

Combustion of Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil and

peat releases CO previously trapped
Deforestation: Removes photosynthesising
biomass so less CO is removed

CO is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming

The ocean is a CO sink so keeps it constant
When organisms die Saprophytes
break them down into small soluble
molecules using enzymes

The decomposers then

absorb the molecules via
diffusion

The carbon is then released as CO during respiration of the

decomposer
When decay is prevented fossils are formed

The Carbon Cycle Diagram

6.2 The Greenhouse Effect and

Global Warming
The
Greenhouse
Effect

Natural process that occurs all the time

Due to solar radiation from the sun reaching
the earth
Greenhouse gases trap the heat in the
Earths atmosphere causing it to heat up

Greenhouse
Gases

The major greenhouse gas is CO which is

increasing due to human activities
Methane is also produced when
microorganisms break down organic
molecules , it occurs in two situations:
Decomposers break down dead remains
of organisms
Microorganisms in intestines of primary
consumers e.g. cattle digest food

Global
Warming

Due to the layer of greenhouse gases

building up it traps the heat from the sun
causing the Earth to heat up

Consequences of Global
Warming
Changes in temperature and precipitation, the timing of
seasons and frequency of extreme events e.g. storms
Climate change will effect niches available due to organisms
being adapted to particular niches
Animals could migrate to new areas causing competition and
loss of native species
Melting ice gap could cause extinction of wild plants and
animals e.g. polar bears and sea levels will rise
Low land would be flooded and sea water would extend further
up rivers making cultivation difficult
Droughts could occur due to higher temperatures meaning
xerophytes could only survive
Greater rainfall would occur in some areas
Insect lifecycles will be altered and due to them carrying
human and crop pathogens tropical diseases could spread
toward poles
Benefit could be more rainfall filling reservoirs, higher
temperatures causing higher rate of photosynthesis so more
productivity and a larger harvest

6.3 The Nitrogen Cycle

All living organisms require a source of nitrogen to
form nucleic acids and proteins
Plants take most of their nitrogen up via nitrate ions
(NO-) from the soil
The ions are absorbed by active transport from the
root hairs
Animals obtain their nitrogen compounds by eating the
plants
Nitrate ions are soluble
When plants and animals die decomposition occurs and
the nitrates are restored to the soil

The Stages of the Nitrogen Cycle

Ammonification
The production of ammonia from organic ammonium compounds e.g. urea, proteins and
nucleic acids
Saprobiotic microorganisms e.g. fungi feed on these materials releasing ammonia which
forms ammonium ions in the soil
This is where nitrogen returns to non living components of the ecosystem

Nitrification

Ammonium ions to nitrate ions is an oxidation reaction so releases energy

It is carried out by nitrifying bacteria in two stages:
1. Oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite ions (NO)
2. Oxidation of nitrite ions to nitrate ions (NO)
Nitrifying bacteria require oxygen to carry out the conversions so the soil needs to have air
spaces
Farmers keep soil light and aerated by ploughing and having good drainage

Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen gas is converted to nitrogen containing compounds

1. Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria reduce gaseous nitrogen to ammonia to manufacture
amino acids, when the bacteria dies and decay they release the nitrogen compounds
2. Mutualistic nitrogen fixing bacteria live in nodules on roots of plants and they obtain
carbohydrates from the plant while in return the plant acquires amino acids from the
bacteria

Denitrification

When soil is waterlogged there is a shortage of oxygen and the type of microorganism
present changes
Fewer aerobic nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria are found meaning more anaerobic
denitrifying bacteria are present
This bacteria converts soil nitrates into gaseous nitrogen reducing availability of nitrogen
containing compounds for plants

6.4 Use of Natural and Artificial

Fertilisers
Intensive food production makes large demands on the
soil

Due to this the minerals are removed from the soil, in

agriculture the remains of the consumer are rarely
returned to the same area so mineral ions fall

The mineral ions

need to be
replenished so
fertilisers are
added

Natural (organic): consist of

dead/decaying remains as well as
animal waste
Artificial (inorganic): Mined from
rocks and deposits then converted
into different forms to give the
appropriate balance of minerals ,
compounds contain nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium

Fertilisers Increasing
Productivity
Plants require minerals for growth, nitrogen is needed
for proteins and DNA

With nitrogen plants grow taller and have a greater

leaf area

This increases the rate of photosynthesis and

improves crop productivity

6.5 Environmental Consequences

of using Nitrogen Fertilisers
Effects of Nitrogen Fertilisers
Nitrogen is essential for proteins and growth and
causes the increase in leaf area
This increases the rate of photosynthesis and
improves crop productivity

The nitrogen containing fertilisers have bad

effects to:
Reduced species diversity as nitrogen rich soils
favour growth of grasses so they out compete
other species that then die
Leaching leads to pollution of watercourses
Eutrophication caused by leaching of fertiliser into
watercourses

Leaching and Eutrophication

Leaching

Eutrophicat
ion

The process by which nutrients are removed from the soil

Rain water will dissolve soluble nutrients e.g. nitrates and carry them
into the soil beyond plant roots
The leached nitrates reach the watercourses e.g. rivers that drain into
freshwater lakes
They can harm drinking water, prevent efficient oxygen transport in
babies and cause stomach cancer
The
nitrates
harmfulbuild
to environment
cause
The leached
process by
whichare
nutrients
up in bodiesas
ofthey
water
eutrophication
Most rivers contain low nitrate levels so it is a limiting factor for
plant/algae growth
Nitrate concentration increases due to leaching so the plants grow
exponentially
Algae grow at the surface so the upper layers of water become
densely populated with algae, algae bloom
The layer absorbs light and prevents it from reaching the lower
depths
Light becomes the limiting factor for growth so plants at deeper
depths die
The lack off dead plants and algae is no longer limiting for the
growth of saprobiotic algae so they grow exponentially
Saprobiotic bacteria require oxygen for respiration creating a
demand for oxygen
The concentration of oxygen in the water is reduced and nitrates
are reduced from decaying organisms
Oxygen then becomes the limiting factor for aerobic organisms e.g.
fish so they die
Without aerobic organisms there is less competition for anaerobic
organisms
These organisms further decompose dead material realising more
nitrates and toxic waste like hydrogen sulphide

AQA A2 Biology Unit 4

Ecological Succession

Specification
3.4.7 Ecosystems are dynamic systems usually moving from colonisation to
climax communities in the process of succession.
Candidates
Succession
should be able
to
use their
knowledge
and
Succession from
understanding to
pioneer species to
present scientific
climax community.
arguments and
At each stage in
ideas relating to
succession, certain
the conservation of
species may be
species and
recognised which
habitats
evaluate
change the
evidence and data
environment so that it
concerning issues
becomes more
relating to the
suitable for other
conservation of
species.
The changes in the
species and
abiotic environment
habitats and
result in a less hostile
consider conflicting
environment and
evidence
changing diversity.
explain how
conservation relies
Conservation of
on science to
habitats frequently
inform
decisioninvolves management
making.
of succession.

Definitions

Ecosystem: More or less a self-contained functional unit in

ecology made up of all the biotic and abiotic factors of a specific
area

Abiotic: An ecological factor that makes up part of the nonbiological environment of an organism e.g. temperature

Biotic: An ecological factor that makes up the living environment

e.g. food

Communities: The organisms of all species that live in the same

area

Deciduous: Plants that shed their leaves in one season

Habitats: The place where an organism lives, characterised by

physical conditions and the species of other organisms present

Climax Community: The organisms that make up the final stage

of ecological succession

Biodiversity: The range and variety of living organisms within a

particular area

7.1 Succession
Ecosystems constantly change, this is known as succession
The first stage of succession is the colonisation of an inhospitable environment by
the pioneer species

Pioneer Species
Adaptations:

Succession
Stages

Succession
Features:

Product vast quantities of wind dispersed seeds/spores

Rapid germination of seeds on arrival
Ability to photosynthesise
Ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
Tolerant of extreme conditions
Over these stages the environment becomes more hospitable and new
species begin to grow which can outcompete other species
The pioneer species e.g. lichen, grow in inhospitable environments and
as time progresses the lichen die and decompose producing nutrients
to support the community
Lichens have changed the abiotic environment by creating soil and
nutrients
Mosses are the next followed by ferns causing an increase in organic
matter, due to the dying plants the soil becomes thicker
The hospitability is increased till the ultimate community is formed
(climax community)
Due to the variation of plants a variation of animals is also increased
Non-living environment becomes less hostile due to nutrients being
increased
Greater number and variety of habitats
Increased biodiversity
More complex food webs
Increased biomass

Climax Communities
Have a stable equilibrium with the climate
Abiotic factors determine the dominate species in the community

Secondary Succession
If land has been cleared for agriculture or a forest fire the process
of succession still occurs
It is a faster process as spores and seeds remain alive in the soil
and there is an influx of animals and plants via migration
There is no need for a pioneer species

7.2 Conservation of
Habitats
Conservation involves active intervention from humans to maintain
biodiversity

Reasons for conservation:

Ethical: Species should be allowed to coexist with

humans
Economic: Living organisms have a large pool of
genes that could be valuable. Long term productivity
is greater if ecosystems are maintained
Cultural and Aesthetic: Habitats and their
organisms enrich our lives

Managing Succession

Many of the organisms present in the series of

succession are no longer present at the climax
community
Due to being outcompeted or their habitat being no
more the species often migrate
In order to combat this problem succession is
stopped e.g. the land my be burnt or grazed on by
sheep stopping tree saplings from growing
If the factor preventing further succession is removed
then the climax community will grow in secondary
succession