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Wireless Systems
Lecture 4
Propagation and Modulation
of RF Waves
1
d Prad S av gd A S av gR dA S dA
S av
d Prad S dA
d A R sin d d
2
dA
d 2 sin d d
R
steradians
d Prad S dA
dA
d 2
R
dA R2 d
d Prad R 2 S R , , d
The total power radiated by an antenna is given by
2
Prad R 2
S R , , sin d d
Prad R 2 S max
F , sin d d
Prad R 2 S max
F ,
F , d
4
is the normalized
radiation intensity
F , 1
6
Antenna Pattern
It is convenient to characterize the variation of
F ( , ) in two dimensions
Two principle planes of the
spherical coordinate system
Elevation Plane ( - plane)
Corresponds to a single value
of ( = 0
x z plane)
( = 90
y z plane)
F dB 10 log F
= 0 plane
10
Beam Dimensions
Define: Pattern solid angle
F , d
4
sr
p 4
sr
11
12
2 1
13
F () is max at = 90 o , 2 = 135 0 , 1 = 45 o ,
= 135 o 45 o = 90 o
14
Null Beamwidth,
null
Beamwidth between
the first nulls on
either side of the peak
15
Antenna Directivity
F max
F av
1
F av
4
F , d
4
p
p = Pattern solid angle
For an isotropic antenna,
= 4
D=1
16
4 R 2 S max
Prad
S max
S av
Prad
4 R 2
S av S iso
S iso = power density radiated by an isotropic antenna
D = ratio of the maximum power density radiated by
the antenna to the power density radiated by
an isotropic antenna
17
p ; xz yz
4
4
D
;
p xz yz
18
F , cos 2
19
Solution
The statement
F , cos
2
F , F cos
2
0
2
0 2
elsewhere
20
a. The function
F cos
2
is maximum when = 0
b. The pattern solid angle is
given by
p
Polar plot of
F , d
4
2
cos
sin
d
0
F cos
2
cos 3
1
2
d
3
3
sr
21
c.
3
4
D
4
6
p
2
D d B 10 log 6 7.78 d B
F cos 2
F cos 2 0.5
1 45
2 45
2 1 90 o
22
F , sin 2
D
F , sin d d
4
1 .5
8
3
sin d d
3
23
Antenna Gain
P t = Transmitter power sent to the antenna
P rad = Power radiated into space
P loss = Power loss due to heat in the antenna
= P t P rad
Define: Radiation Efficiency,
Prad
Pt
24
4 R 2 S max
Pt
4 R 2 S max
Prad
G D
Accounts for the losses in the antenna
25
Radiation Resistance
P loss = Power loss due to heat in the antenna
= P t P rad
1 2
Pt I 0 R ant Ploss Prad
2
1 2
Ploss I 0 R loss
2
1 2
Prad I 0 R rad
2
Prad
Pt
Prad
Prad Ploss
R rad
R rad R loss
26
Prad
1 2
I 0 R rad
2
27
R loss
2 a
fc
c
28
Solution
The parameters of copper are
r 1
c 5.8 10
R loss
2 a
S
m
f c
c
0.04
2 0.004
75 10 4 10
7
5.8 10
0.036
29
At 75 MHz:
c
3 10 8
4 m
6
f
75 10
l
4 cm
0.01
4m
This is a short dipole
From before,
Prad
4 R 2
S max
D
S max
15 I
R2
2
0
30
2
15
I
4 R
0 l
2
D
R
2
Prad
l
40 I
2
Prad
R rad
2
0
1 2
I 0 R rad 40 2 I 02
2
l
80
0.08
R rad
R rad R loss
3 0.04
80
0.08
0.69 69 %
0.08 0.036
31
%
I z I 0 cos k z z
4
4
2
k
32
e
0
0
E%
sin
4
R
%
E
%
H
0
33
Consider an
infinitesimal dipole
segment of length dz
excited by a current I% z
and located a
distance from the
observation point
d E% z
d H% z
j k0
jks
e
I% z dz
sin s
s
4
d E% z
34
antenna is given by
E%
d E%
Two assumptions:
1 1
(length factor)
;
s R
s ;
35
d E% z
j k 0
4
jks
e
I% z d z
sin s
s
s; R
factor is
which is not acceptable
2
s ; R z cos
36
d E% z
j k 0
4
e
%
I z d z
jkR
cos 2 cos
E% j 60 I 0
sin
H%
E%
sin e j k z cos
e j k R
S R ,
E%
2 0
cos 2 cos
2
sin
37
S R ,
E%
2 0
S R ,
E%
2 0
cos 2 cos
2
sin
15 I 02
cos 2 cos
S0
2
sin
38
S R ,
is max when
S max S 0
15 I 02
R2
cos
cos
S R ,
2
S0
sin
39
S R , d
4
15 I 02
cos
cos
2 2
2
0 0
sin
sin d d
36.6 I 02
S max
D
4 R 2 S max
Prad
15 I 02
4 R
36.6 I 02
2
15 I 02
1.64 2.15 d B
40
2 Prad
R rad
2
0
2 36.6 I
I
2
0
2
0
; 73
R rad
R rad R loss
0.08
69 %
0.08 0.036
R rad
R rad R loss
73
98 %
73 1.8
41
Ae
Pint
Si
Pint PL
V%
oc
V%
oc
8 R rad
Si
Ae
2
%
Ei
2 0
Pint
Si
2
%
Ei
240
30 V%
oc
R rad
2
%
Ei
R rad
l
80
%l
V%
E
oc
i
3 2
Ae
8
43
In terms of D:
2D
Ae
4
m2
c 3 10
0.1
9
f
3 10
8
4 Ae
4 9
2
0.1
1.13 10 4 40.53 d B
44
Assumptions:
Each antenna is in the far field region of the other
Peak of the radiation pattern of each antenna is
aligned with the other
Transmission is lossless
45
S iso
Pt
4 R
(ideal)
t D t Pt
4 R 2
t A t Pt
Sr 2 2
R
46
t A t A r Pt
S r Ar
2R2
Prec r Pint
Prec
Pt
t r At Ar
Gt Gr
2
2
R
4 R
47
Prec
Pt
t r At Ar
Gt Gr
2
2
R
4 R
Ft t , t Fr r , r
48
Homework
1. Determine the following:
a. The direction of maximum radiation
b. Directivity
c. Beam solid angle
d. Half power beamwidth in the x z plane
for an antenna whose normalized radiation intensity is
given by:
F , 1 for 0 60 o , 0 2
0 elsewhere
Hint: Sketch the pattern first
49
50
Analog Modulation
High frequencies require smaller antennas
Modulation impresses a lower frequency onto
a higher frequency for easier transmission
The signal is modulated at the transmission
end and demodulated at the receiving end
Several basic types
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Pulse width modulation (PWM)
51
Amplitude Modulation
Carrier wave High frequency signal that transports
the intelligence
Signal wave Low frequency signal that contains the
intelligence
52
AM transmitter
DC shifts the modulating signal
Multiplies it with the carrier wave using a
frequency mixer
Mixer must be nonlinear
Output is a signal with the same frequency as the
carrier with peaks and valleys that vary in
proportion to the strength of the modulating signal
Signal is amplified and sent to the antenna
53
Output input 2
f 1 t A1 cos 1 t
f 2 t A 2 cos 2 t
The output will be
f o t A o A1 cos 1 t A 2 cos 2 t
54
Homework
f o t A o A1 cos 1 t A 2 cos 2 t
55
Advantages
Simplicity
Cost
Disadvantages
Susceptible to atmospheric interference (static)
Narrow bandwidth (550 1500 KHz)
56
AM Receiver
Tunable filter
Envelope detector (diode)
Capacitor is used to eliminate the carrier and to
undo the DC shift
Will generally include
some form of automatic
gain control (AGC)
57
Example
Consider a carrier with a frequency
c t C sin c t
m t M sin m t
The signal is amplitude modulated by adding m(t) to C
The expression for this signal is
y t C M sin m t sin c t
y t C sin c t M
cos m c t
2
cos m c t
2
60
y t C m t cos c t
y t C m t
j c t
e
2
j c t
Y C c
1
1
M c C c M c
2
2
Eff = 100 %
Eff = 33 %
Eff = 100 %
62
Modulation Index
Measure of the modulating signal wrt the
carrier signal
peak value of m t
C
63
64
65