Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Distance Protection
GE Multilin
Outline
Transmission line introduction
What is distance protection?
Non-pilot and pilot schemes
Redundancy considerations
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
Out-of-step relaying
Single-pole tripping
Series-compensated lines
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September 17, 2015
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
Provide path to transfer power between generation
and load
Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
Deregulated markets, economic, environmental
requirements have pushed utilities to operate
transmission lines close to their limits.
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September 17, 2015
Transmission Lines
Classification of line length depends on:
Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR),
and
Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
Short Lines: SIR > 4
Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
Long Lines: SIR < 0.5
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September 17, 2015
Current differential
Phase comparison
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip
(POTT)
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
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September 17, 2015
Phase comparison
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
Unblocking
Step Distance
Step or coordinated overcurrent
Inverse time overcurrent
Current Differential
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September 17, 2015
Phase comparison
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
Unblocking
Step Distance
Step or coordinated overcurrent
Current Differential
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September 17, 2015
I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z V
RELAY (V,I)
Intended
REACH point
I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z V
RELAY (V,I)
RELAY
10 /
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September 17, 2015
System
VR VN
Voltage at the relay:
f LOC [ PU ]
f LOC [ PU ] SIR
Voltag
e (%)
Voltage
change (%)
75%
88.24
2.76
90%
90.00
0.91
100%
90.91
N/A
110%
91.67
0.76
11 /
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September 17, 2015
Lin
e
VR VN
Voltage at the relay:
f LOC [ PU ]
f LOC [ PU ] SIR
Consider SIR = 30
Fault
location
Voltag
e (%)
Voltage
change (%)
75%
2.4390
0.7868
90%
2.9126
0.3132
100%
3.2258
N/A
110%
3.5370
0.3112
12 /
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September 17, 2015
C1
30
20
voltage, V
> Transients:
High frequency
DC offset in currents
CVT transients in voltages
10
0
-10
3
-20
2
Secondary Voltage
Output
C2
steady-state
output
-30
0
CVT output
2
3
power cycles
4
8
13 /
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September 17, 2015
C1
60
40
voltage, V
> Transients:
High frequency
DC offset in currents
CVT transients in voltages
steady-state
output
20
0
-20
3
CVT
output
-40
2
Secondary Voltage
Output
C2
-60
0
2
3
power cycles
4
8
14 /
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September 17, 2015
vA
vB
100
vC
60
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-0.5
0.5
1.5
SPOL
-50
-100
SOP
-0.5
0.5
1.5
power cycles
iB, iC
-1
-2
-3
50
iA
Current [A]
Voltage [V]
40
100
-0.5
0.5
1.5
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September 17, 2015
Transient Overreach
Fault current generally contains dc
offset in addition to ac power frequency
component
Ratio of dc to ac component of current
depends on instant in the cycle at which
fault occurred
Rate of decay of dc offset depends on
system X/R
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September 17, 2015
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18 /
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September 17, 2015
Z1
End Zone
XL
R
XC
15
15
34
Reactance[ohm]
[ohm]
Reactance
10
10
30
5
30
34
42
42
44
Actual
ActualFault
Fault
Location
Location
44
dynami
c mho
dynamic
mho
zone
extended
zone extended
forforhigh
highSIRs
SIRs
Line
Line
Impedance
Impedance
18
18
22
0
26
-5
-5
-10
-10
-5
-5
Resistance [ohm]
Resistance [ohm]
22
Trajectory
Trajectory
(msec)
(msec)
26
5
10
5
10
Impedance
locus
may
Impedance
locus
maypass
pass
below
belowthe
theorigin
originof
ofthe
theZ-plane
Z-plane-this
thiswould
wouldcall
callfor
foraatime
timedelay
delay
to
toobtain
obtainstability
stability
20 /
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September 17, 2015
21 /
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September 17, 2015
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September 17, 2015
X
Delayed
Trip
Instantaneous
Trip
R
23 /
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September 17, 2015
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September 17, 2015
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September 17, 2015
30ms
20ms
15ms
26 /
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September 17, 2015
LL faults
3P faults
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September 17, 2015
Actual
Actualmaximum
maximumreach
reachcurves
curves
100
100
Relay 4
90
90
Relay 3
MaximumRach
Rach[%]
[%]
Maximum
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
Relay 2
30
30
20
20
Relay 1
10
10
00
00
55
10
10
15
15
SIR
SIR
20
20
25
25
30
30
28 /
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September 17, 2015
29 /
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September 17, 2015
Mho Characteristics
Traditional
Directional
angle
slammed
Directional
angle lowered
and
slammed
Load Swings
+XL
Reac
h
+ = LOOKING INTO
LINE normally
considered forward
Load
Trajectory
Operate
area
+R
No Operate
area
Typical load
characteristic
impedance
31 /
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September 17, 2015
Load Swings
Lenticular
Characterist
ic
Load swing
32 /
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September 17, 2015
Load Encroachment
Characteristic
33 /
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September 17, 2015
Blinders
Blinders limit the operation of distance
relays (quad or mho) to a narrow region
that parallels and encompasses the
protected line
Applied to long transmission lines,
where mho settings are large enough to
pick up on maximum load or minor
system swings
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September 17, 2015
Quadrilateral Characteristics
35 /
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September 17, 2015
Quadrilateral Characteristics
Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)
Resultant impedance outside of
the mho operating region
XL
36 /
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September 17, 2015
JX
eral
R
Standard for
phase elements
Better coverage
for ground faults
due to
resistance
added to return
path
37 /
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September 17, 2015
Distance Element
Polarization
The following polarization quantities are
commonly used in distance relays for
determining directionality:
Self-polarized
Memory voltage
Positive sequence voltage
Quadrature voltage
Leading phase voltage
38 /
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September 17, 2015
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for
polarizing:
Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance MHO and QUAD)
Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and
QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all
zones, phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)
39 /
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September 17, 2015
Memory Polarization
jX
ZL
R
ZS
40 /
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September 17, 2015
Memory Polarization
jX
ZL
RL
R
ZS
41 /
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September 17, 2015
Choice of Polarization
In order to provide flexibility modern
distance relays offer a choice with
respect to polarization of ground
overcurrent direction functions:
Voltage polarization
Current polarization
Dual polarization
42 /
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September 17, 2015
Distance Schemes
Pilot Aided
Schemes
Non-Pilot Aided
Schemes
(Step Distance)
Communication
between Distance
relays
No Communication
between Distance
Relays
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September 17, 2015
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September 17, 2015
BU
S
BU
S
Z1
Z1
Remot
e
46 /
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September 17, 2015
End
Zone
BU
S
BU
S
Z1
Z1
Remot
e
47 /
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September 17, 2015
Breake
r
Closed
Breake
r
Trippe
d
BU
S
BU
S
Z1
Z1
Remot
e
48 /
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September 17, 2015
Z2 (time
delayed)
BU
S
BU
S
Z1
Z1
Z2 (time
delayed)
49 /
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Remot September 17, 2015
Z3 (remote
backup)
Z2 (time
delayed)
BU
S
BU
S
Z1
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September 17, 2015
51 /
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September 17, 2015
Remote Relay Z4
Local Relay
Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP
Zone 4 PKP
52 /
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September 17, 2015
BU
S
BU
S
Local
Relay
Remote
Relay
Communication
Channel
53 /
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September 17, 2015
Pilot Communications
Channels
54 /
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September 17, 2015
Distance-based Pilot
Protection
55 /
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September 17, 2015
56 /
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September 17, 2015
Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which
overlap in reach (Zone 1).
Applied with FSK channel
GUARD frequency transmitted during normal
conditions
TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
Scheme does not provide tripping for faults
beyond RU reach if remote breaker is open or
channel is inoperative.
Dual pilot channels improve security
57 /
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September 17, 2015
DUTT Scheme
Zone 1
Bus
Bus
Line
Zone 1
58 /
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September 17, 2015
Permissive Underreaching
Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Requires both under (RU) and
overreaching (RO) functions
Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping
signal supervised by RO (Zone 2)
59 /
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September 17, 2015
PUTT Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
To protect end of
line
Bus
Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
Rx PKP
Zone 2
&
Local Trip
OR
Zone 1
60 /
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September 17, 2015
Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip (POTT)
Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone
2).
Applied with FSK channel:
GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
TRIP frequency when one RO function
operates
No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
Time-delayed tripping can be provided
61 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
Bus
Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
(Z1)
Tx
Zone 1
(Z1)
OR
Rx
AND
Zone 2
Trip
Line
Breakers
62 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
POTT Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
BU
S
BU
S
End
Zone
Communication
Channel
63 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
Local
Local
Relay FWD
IGND
Local Relay Z2
Remote
Relay
FWD IGND
Remote Relay Z2
Communicat
ion Channel
TRIP
POTT RX
Local
Relay 2 PKP
ZONE
OR
Ground Dir OC
Fwd
POTT TX
ZONE 2
PKP
OR
Remote
Relay
64 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
POTT RX 2
POTT RX 3
POTT RX 4
Local Relay
Communications
Channel(s)
POTT RX 1
POTT TX 1 A to G
POTT TX 2 B to G
POTT TX 3 C to G
POTT TX 4 Multi Phase
Remote Relay
65 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP
Local Relay
GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV
Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire
Channel
POTT RX
POTT TX
Remote Relay
ZONE
2 OC
ORREV
GND
DIR
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
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September 17, 2015
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open
Remote Z2
OPEN
Communication
Channel
POTT RX
Local Relay
POTT TX
TRIP
POTT TX
POTT RX
Communication
Channel
Remote Relay
67 /
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September 17, 2015
Hybrid POTT
Intended for three-terminal lines and
weak infeed conditions
Echo feature adds security during weak
infeed conditions
Reverse-looking distance and oc
elements used to identify external faults
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September 17, 2015
Hybrid POTT
Zone 2
Zone 1
Remote
Local
Weak
system
Bus
Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 4
Zone 2
69 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking
(B) functions
ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
Transmitter is keyed to ON state when
blocking function(s) operate
Receipt of signal from remote end blocks
tripping relays
Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and
low-set ground overcurrent elements
70 /
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September 17, 2015
DCB Scheme
Zone 2
Zone 1
Remote
Local
Bus
Bus
Line
Zone 1
Zone 2
71 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
BUS
BUS
End Zone
Communication Channel
72 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
Internal FaultsLocal Relay Z2
FWD IGND
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
TRIP
Zone 2 PKP
OR
NO
Dir Block RX
Remote Relay
73 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
External FaultsLocal Relay Z2
FWD IGND
TRIP Timer
Start
Remote Relay Z4
REV IGND
No TRIP
Dir Block RX
Local Relay
Zone 2 PKP
OR
DIR BLOCK TX
Communication
Channel
Zone 4 PKP
Remote Relay
OR
74 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR)
schemes to overcome the possibility of carrier signal
attenuation or loss as a result of the fault
Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is
lost:
If signal is lost due to fault, at least one
permissive RO functions will be picked up
Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP
signal (150-300 ms). If RO function not picked
up, channel lockout occurs until GUARD signal
returns
75 /
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September 17, 2015
DCUB Scheme
Forward
Bus
Bus
Line
Forward
(Un-Block)
(Block)
Trip
Line
Breakers
Tx1
Tx2
Forward
(Block)
Rx2
AND
AND
(Un-Block)
AND
o
AND
Rx1
Lockout
76 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
BUS
BUS
End Zone
Communication Channel
77 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions
Load Current
FSK Carrier
GUARD1 RX
FSK Carrier
GUARD1 TX
Local Relay
NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission
GUARD2 TX
Communication
Channel
GUARD2 RX
Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission
78 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure
Load Current
Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier
GUARD1
NO
RX RX
FSK Carrier
GUARD1 TX
Local Relay
Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started
Expired
Block DCUB
until Guard OK
GUARD2 TX
Communication
Channel
GUARD2
NO
RX RX
Remote Relay
Loss of Guard
Block DCUB 79 /
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until Guard
OK
September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy
Local Relay channel
Z2
Remote Relay Z2
TRIP
TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier
Local Relay
Zone 2 PKP
Loss of Guard
Permission
FSK Carrier
GUARD1
TRIP1
RXRX
GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
GUARD2
TRIP2
TX TX
GUARD2
TRIP2
RXRX
Communication
Channel
Remote Relay
ZONE 2 PKP
80 /
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September 17, 2015
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, channel
failure
Local Relay Z2
Remote Relay Z2
Loss of Channel
TRIP
FSK Carrier
Local Relay
Zone 2 PKP
TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier
GUARD1
NO
RX RX
GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
GUARD2
TRIP2
TX TX
GUARD2
NO
RX RX
Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started
Duration Timer Started
Expired
Remote Relay
ZONE 2 PKP
Loss of Guard
Communication
Channel
81 /
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September 17, 2015
Redundancy Considerations
Redundant protection systems increase dependability of
the system:
Multiple sets of protection using same protection
principle and multiple pilot channels overcome individual
element failure, or
Multiple sets of protection using different protection
principles and multiple channels protects against failure
of one of the protection methods.
Security can be improved using voting schemes (i.e., 2out-of-3), potentially at expense of dependability.
Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems,
trip coil circuits, etc. also need to be considered.
82 /
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September 17, 2015
Redundant Communications
BUS
BUS
End Zone
AND Channels:
POTT Less Reliable
DCB Less Secure
OR Channels:
Communication Channel 1
Communication Channel 2
Loss of Channel 2
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September 17, 2015
84 /
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September 17, 2015
Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and
negative sequence) directional IOCs with
current, voltage, and/or dual polarization
85 /
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September 17, 2015
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September 17, 2015
Single-pole Tripping
Distance relay must correctly identify a
SLG fault and trip only the circuit breaker
pole for the faulted phase.
Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions
must be initiated correctly on the fault event
Security must be maintained on the
healthy phases during the open pole
condition and any reclosing attempt.
92 /
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September 17, 2015
Out-of-Step Condition
For certain operating conditions, a
severe system disturbance can cause
system instability and result in loss of
synchronism between different
generating units on an interconnected
system.
93 /
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September 17, 2015
Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to
prevent a terminal from tripping during severe
system swings & out-of-step conditions.
Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate
manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
Operate independently of other devices to detect outof-step condition during the first pole slip.
Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in
order to balance load with available generation on
any isolated part of the system.
94 /
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September 17, 2015
Out-of-Step Tripping
When the inner
characteristic is
entered the
element is ready
to trip
95 /
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September 17, 2015
96 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
Reduction of overall XL of long lines
Improvement of stability margins
Ability to adjust line load levels
Loss reduction
Reduction of voltage drop during severe
disturbances
Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles
E
Xs
SC
XL
Infinte
Bus
97 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective
relays and fault locators:
Overreaching of distance elements
Failure of distance element to pick up on lowcurrent faults
Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping
applications
Large fault location errors
E
Xs
SC
XL
Infinte
Bus
98 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV
99 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
100 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control
101 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
102 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults
103 /
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September 17, 2015
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults
104 /
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September 17, 2015
Transformer Group
Compensation
Setting Rules
Transformer positive sequence impedance must
be included in reach setting only if transformer lies
between VTs and intended reach point
Currents require compensation only if transformer
located between CTs and intended reach point
Voltages require compensation only if transformer
located between VTs and intended reach point
Compensation set based on transformer
connection & vector group as seen from CTs/VTs
toward reach point
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September 17, 2015
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