Reading

Carrell, L. & Grabe, W. (2010). Reading. In Norber

t Schmitt (ed.), An Introduction to Applied Lingui
stics (2nd ed.), Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. Londo
n: Hodder Education.
Grabe, W. (2010). Reading in a second language.
In R. Kaplan (ed.). Handbook of Applied Linguisti
cs (2nd ed.), pp.88-99. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Reading Chapter Outline 1

Introduction
What is Reading?
Reading in a Second Language
L2 Reading versus L1 Reading
Key Linguistic and Processing Differences
Key Individual and Experiential Differences
Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional Factors

Reading Chapter Outline 2

Issues in L2 Reading

Automaticity and Word Recognition

L2 Word Recognition across L1s
Vocabulary
Reading Rate
Language Threshold
Role of Background Knowledge in Reading
Knowledge of Text Structure & Discourse Cues
Meta-cognition and Reading Strategies
Extensive Reading / Impact of Exposure to Print
Further Issues

Implications of L2 Research for Instruction

What is Reading?

Types of Reading
Purposes for Reading
1. Scanning
2. Skimming
3. Reading for general understanding
4. Reading to learn
5. Reading to integrate information
6. Reading to evaluate critically
7. Reading for pleasure

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 215.

Type of Reading and Speed

1. Scanning
600 wpm
2. Reading for understanding
250-300 wpm
3. Reading to learn
200 wpm

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.

What is Reading?

Different reading purposes require different und

erlying cognitive processes and resources.
Academic setting: reading for comprehension vs
. reading for learn
- Extract and integrate various information from texts co
mbined it with what is already known (Koda, 2005)
- Involve many components of cognitive processing (e.
g., morphological, syntactic, and discourse level) and
meta-cognitive processing

L1 Reader Variation
Training
Age
Schooling
Motivation
Socio-economic level
Individual cognition
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.

L1 and L2 Reader Differences

1. They do not have the same language
resources as L1 readers
2. They do not share all the social and
cultural assumptions and knowledge bases
3. They do not share the background knowledge
4. They have different reasons for studying L2
5. They are working with 2 languages
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 216.

Major Differences in
L1 vs. L2 Reading
1. Key Linguistic and Processing
Differences
2. Key Individual and Experiential
Differences
3. Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional
Factors

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 217-218.

Key Linguistic and Processing

Differences

Differing amounts of lexical, grammatical, and dis

course knowledge at the beginning stage of L1 an
d L2
Linguistic differences and L1 transfer
Interacting influences of working with two langua
ges: bilingual mental lexicon, bilingual processing
of language structures, semantic interpretations
Varying L2 proficiency as a founder for L2 reading

Key Individual and Experiential

Differences

Level of L1 reading ability

Exposure to L2 print
Different motivation for L2 reading

Key Socio-Cultural and Institutional

Factors

Socio-cultural background of L2 readers

Different discourse organization between L1 and
L2
Expectations of educational institutions

Ten Issues in L2 Reading 1

1. Automaticity and Word Recognition
2. L2 Word Recognition Differences
across L1s (orthographic depth and orth
ographic distance)
3. Vocabulary: vocabulary size http://
www.wordengine.jp
4. Reading Rate
5. Language Threshold
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.

Ten Issues in L2 Reading 2

6. Role of Background Knowledge in Reading
7. Knowledge of Text Structure and Discourse
Cues
8. Meta-Cognition and Reading
Strategies

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.

Ten Issues in L2 Reading 3

9. Extensive Reading / Impact of
Print
10. Further Issues

Exposure to

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 218-228.

Implication 1: Automaticity and

Word Recognition
Word recognition exercises are probably useful for
both older and younger L2 readers, enhancing flu
ency and raising student awareness of the proces
sing demands of extended independent reading.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 219.

Implication 2: L2 Word Recognition

Differences across L1s
Teachers need to be aware that L2 learners comin
g from an L1 with a different orthographic system
may be disadvantagedparticularly at beginning r
eading levelsnot only because they have to lear
n a new orthographic system, but because they m
ay also need to develop new processing mechani
sms more suitable to the L2.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 220.

Vocabulary Issues
A. Issues in Vocabulary and L2 Reading
Development
B. How Much L2 Lexis is Needed?
C. The Role of Context in Guessing /
Guessability of Word Meaning in L2
Reading
D. Dictionary Use and L2 Reading

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, pp. 220-222.

Issues in Vocabulary and L2 Reading

Development

Number of words needed

Role of context and guessing
Role of dictionaries and cognates
Strategies
Role of extensive or pleasure reading
Impact of vocabulary instruction
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 220.

Implication 3: Vocabulary
In order for L2 learners to read well, they must ha
ve an adequately sized vocabulary and must be
able to recognize the words in that vocabulary q
uickly and accurately. Guessing from context an
d dictionary use can help in acquiring this vocab
ulary over time, but these skills are not automati
c. Rather, they need to be developed and practi
ced in order to be used effectively in conjunction
with reading.
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 222.

Implication 4: Reading Rate

Exercises aimed at improving reading rate seem
to help L2 learners, in particular those who hav
e already developed their word recognition skill
s.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.

Two Hypotheses about

L2 Reading
1. Language Threshold Hypothesis
2. Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.

Language Threshold Hypothesis

some minimal threshold of proficiency in the L
2 must be attained in order for the reader's first l
anguage reading skills to transfer to reading in t
he second language.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.

Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesi

s
reading or learning to read is accomplished on
ly once, and that once learners have matured in
their ability to read in the first language, the awa
reness of the reading process transfers to the s
econd language and does not need to be relear
ned. Thus, reading performance in the second l
anguage was claimed to share a common unde
rlying proficiency with reading ability in the first l
anguage (Cummins, 1979).
Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 223.

Implication 5:
Language Threshold
It seems that a certain level of L2 proficiency is nec
essary before L1 reading strategies and skills can
be utilized effectively in L2 reading. Therefore, L2
reading development must take place in a learnin
g context that also promotes overall L2 language
proficiency, at least for lower-level students.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 224.

Implication 6: Role of Background K

nowledge in Reading
Appropriate background knowledge about the topic
being read helps learners understand the reading
better. It is an important element in reading comp
rehension, but only one of many.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 225.

Implication 7: Knowledge of Text St

ructure and Discourse Cues
L2 readers can benefit from an understanding of th
e text structures which organize L2 texts, and can
profit from making those structures explicit. Traini
ng in awareness of text structure, and specifically
how it organizes information in texts, will improve
students[] reading comprehension over time.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 226.

Implication 8: Meta-Cognition
and Reading Strategies
Better learners actively control their reading and str
ategy use. Fortunately, it seems that these metacognitive skills can be taught, with lower proficien
cy students gaining the most. Therefore, reading i
nstruction should include some training in these
management skills.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 227.

Implication 9:
Extensive Reading
Extensive reading provides many benefits fo
r fluency, comprehension and vocabulary lear
ning. It should be a component of almost any
reading programme.

Carrell, Patricia L. and William Grabe. 2010. Reading. In Norbert Schmitt, editor, An
Introduction to Applied Linguistics, 2nd edition, Chapter 13, pp. 215-231. London:
Hodder Education, p. 228.

POSSIBLE RESEARCH AREAS

Interplay between higher and lower level processes
Promoting automaticity in word recognition
Motivation in L2 reading
Reading and Writing relations
Social context factors influencing L2 reading
Assessment practices in L2 reading
Increasing role of fluency in reading instruction
Increasing reading speed
Neurolinguistics and reading
Reading with new multimedia and computer technologie
s
Teacher training for reading instruction
Increasing similarities of L2 reading processes across lan
guage as students reach advance levels