You are on page 1of 94

The Birth of Quantum

Mechanics
At the turn of the last century, there were several
experimental observations which could not be
explained by the established laws of classical physics
and called for a radically different way of thinking.

This led to the development of Quantum Mechanics


which is today regarded as the fundamental theory of
Nature.
NEED:
Some key events/observations that led to the
development of quantum mechanics…
 Black body radiation spectrum (Planck, 1901)
 Photoelectric effect (Einstein, 1905)
 Model of the atom (Bohr’s 1926)
 Quantum Theory of Spectra (Bohr, 1913)
 Scattering of photons off electrons (Compton, 1922)
 Matter Waves (de Broglie 1925)
Model of atom

Bohr model of
atom-Quantum
model
Rutherford model

Classical models
Quantum theory of spectra (Origin of Characteristic x-rays )

hv

Hydrogen
spectra
Black Body Radiation
A black body is an object that absorbs
100% of the radiation that hits it.
Therefore it reflects no radiation and
appears perfectly black.

Wien’s Displacement Law:


7
λ m .T = constant = 2.89810 A o K

Stefan’s Law (1879): the total power


P radiated from one square meter of
black surface at temperature T goes as
the fourth power of the absolute
temperature:
P = σ T 4 , σ = 5.67 ×10−8 watts/sq.m./K 4 .
Blackbody Approximation

 A good approximation of a black


body is a small hole leading to
the inside of a hollow object
 The hole acts as a perfect
absorber
 The nature of the radiation
leaving the cavity through the
hole depends only on the
temperature of the cavity
Rayleigh-Jeans Law:

An early classical attempt to explain blackbody


radiation was the Rayleigh-Jeans law

2πckBT
I ( λ,T ) =
λ4

 At long wavelengths, the law matched experimental


results fairly well
Rayleigh-Jeans Law, cont.

 At short wavelengths, there


was a major disagreement
between the Rayleigh-Jeans
law and experiment

 This mismatch became known


as the ultraviolet catastrophe
Planck’s Quantum Theory

In 1900 Planck devised a theory of Classical predictions


blackbody radiation which gave good of black body
agreement for all wavelengths. In this radiation
theory the molecules of a body cannot
have arbitrary energies but instead are
quantized - the energies can only have
discrete values. The magnitude of these
energies is given by the formula
E = nhv,

where n = 0,1,2,... is an
integer, v is the frequency
of vibration of the
molecule, and h is a
constant, now called 2hv
Planck's constant: hv
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js .
Quantum prediction
Planck’s Model, Graphs
Planck’s Wavelength
Distribution Function
 Planck’s Wavelength Distribution Function
 Planck generated a theoretical expression for the
wavelength distribution

2πhc 2
I ( λ ,T ) = 5 hcλk T
λ (e B
− 1)

 h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s


 h is a fundamental constant of nature
The photoelectric effect
Another experiment which provides compelling proof for the photon nature of
light is the photoelectric effect.

hν -W0=1/2mv2
hv

Classical view Quantum view


Photoelectric Effect Summary

 Each metal has “Work Function” (W0) which


is the minimum energy needed to free
electron from atom.
 Light comes in packets called Photons
 E=hv h=6.626 X 10-34 Joule sec

 Maximum kinetic energy of released


electrons
 K.E. = hv – W0
PHOTOELECTR
E = hν

Actual results:
h (ν - ν 0) = 1/2mv2

Maximum KE of ejected elect


K max = hν − W

independent of intensity, but


dependent on ν
h = 6.63 × 10 −34 Js
Numerical Questions related to photo electric effect

Q1. Photoelectric work function of a photo-sensitive material is 3 eV. Calculate its


threshold frequency and threshold wavelength.

Hint:
1/2mv2

h (ν - ν 0) = 1/2mv2 W
hv

h ν - hν 0 = 1/2mv2

As hν 0 = W = 3 eV

Therefore ν 0 = W/h = 3 x 1.6 x 10 -19 /6.62 10 -34 Hz

And λ 0 = c/ ν 0 Ao
Numerical Questions related to photo electric effect
Q 1.5 mW of 400 nm light is directed at a photoelectric cell. If 0.10 percent of the incident
photons produce photoelectrons, find the current in the cell.
Hint:
hc 6.62 ×10 −34 Js ×3 ×10 8 m / s
E= =
λ 400 ×10 −9 m
E = 3.103 eV .
no . of photons emitted correspond ing to the
power of the incident light 1.5 m V
1.5 ×10 −3 W 1.5 ×10 −3 kgm 2 s −3 1.5 ×10 −3 Js −1 1.5 ×10 −3 eVs −1
n= = = =
3.103 eV 3.103 eV 3.103 eV 1.6 ×10 −19 ×3.103 eV
−1
0.9375 ×10 16 eVs
n= = 0.30212 ×10 16 s −1.
3.103 eV
0.10 percent of photons
0.10 ×0.302 ×10 16 −1
= s . = 3.02 ×10 12 sec −1 .
100
photoelect ric current in the cell =3.02 ×10 12 sec −1×1.6 ×10 −19 C
= 0.483 ×10 −6 Amp
= 0.483 µA.
Numerical Questions related to photo electric effect

Q Light from the sun arrives at the earth , an average of 1.5 x 1011 m away, at the rate of
1.4 x 103 W/m2 of area perpendicular to the direction of light. Assume that sun light is
monochromatic with a frequency of 5.0 x 1014 Hz, how many photons fall per second
on each square meter of the earth surface directly facing the sun?
Hint:

E = nhν = Pt
1.4 × 103
n= − 34
= 0 .0422× 1023
= 4. 2 × 1021
photons/ sec.
6.62 × 10 × 5.0 × 1014
COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions of
charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength as
incident radiation.
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically

Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave

Compton’s explanation: “billiard ball” collisions between particles of


light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material

Before After pν′


scattered photon
Incoming photon
θ

Electron
pe scattered electron
Compton Scattering
This experiment really shows photon momentum!
Pincomingphoton + 0 = Poutgoingphoton + Pelectron

Electron at Experiment:
rest Outgoing photon
has longer
wavelength λ ′
Incoming photon has
momentum, p, and
wavelength λ Recoil electron
carries some
hc h momentum and
E = hv =
λ
p= KE
λ
Momentum of a
Energy of a photon
photon
COMPTON SC

pν ′

pe

Before
hν + me c2 = hν ′ + ( pe2 c2 + me2 c4 )
1/ 2 hˆ
pν = i = pν ′ + p e
λ

h
λ′ − λ = ( 1 − cos θ )
me c
Incoming photon
= λc ( 1 − cos θ ) ≥ 0
h
λc = Compton wavelength = = 2.4 ×10 −12m
mec
Numerical Questions related to Compton effect

Q1 An x-ray photon of frequency 3 x 10 19 Hz collides with an electron and is scattered


through an angle of 900. Find its new frequency.

Hint:

h
λ′ − λ = ( 1 − cos θ )
me c
= λc ( 1 − cos θ ) ≥ 0
The nature of light…….

 The birth of quantum mechanics is intimately


linked with the theories and discoveries
relating to the nature of light

 Is the nature of light that of a wave or a


particle???
Light has a dual nature

 Wave (electromagnetic) - Interference


- Diffraction

 Particle (photons) - Photoelectric effect


- Compton effect

Wave - Particle Duality for light


The connecting link – Planck’s
constant
_______________________________
Dual Nature

h
Radiation
λ=
p
Matter
E = hν
E = hν SUMMAR
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2c 4

Relation between
λν
E = pc p c=
h hν
p= =
λ c
Energy and frequency
E = ω p = k ω = 2πν k =

=
h
λ 2π
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT
In 1924 Einstein wrote:- “ There are therefore now two
theories of light, both indispensable, and … without any
logical connection.”

Evidence for wave-nature of light


• Diffraction and interference
Evidence for particle-nature of light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect
•Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that
are only explicable in terms of wave properties
•Light is always detected as packets (photons); if we look,
we never observe half a photon
•Number of photons proportional to energy density (i.e. to
square of electromagnetic field strength)
MATT
h
λ=
We have seen that light
p h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js

particle properties (ener


wave-like properties of
ACT: De Broglie Wavelength
A stone is dropped from the top of a building.

What happens to the de Broglie wavelength of


the stone as it falls?

1. It decreases h h
p= ⇒ λ=
2. It stays the λ p
same
3. It increases Speed, v, KE=mv2/2,
and momentum,
p=mv, increase.
Activity:
Photon A has twice as much momentum as Photon B.
Compare their energies.

21% • EA = EB hc h
E = and λ = so E = cp
47% • EA = 2 λ p
33% EB
double p then double E
• EAA =
Electron 4 twice as much momentum as Electron
has
EB
B. Compare their energies.

22% • EA = EB 1 2 p2
KE = mv =
2 2m
40% • EA = 2
38% EB double p then quadruple E
MATTER WAVES

de Broglie suggested that Whole of the universe


is composed of light (energy) and matter and
both are inter-transferable physical quantities
(on the basis of Einstein’s mass-energy
equivalence relation). Therefore, if light
(radiation) possesses the dual character, then
matter must show the same, while in motion, as
the nature loves symmetry.
Estimate some de Broglie wavelengths
• Wavelength of electron with 50eV kinetic energy
p2 h2 h
K= = ⇒ =2 λ×
= 1.7 10−10 m
2me 2me λ 2me K

• Wavelength of Nitrogen molecule at room temperature


3kT
K= , =
Mass 28m u
2
h
λ= = × 2.8 10−11 m
3MkT

• Wavelength of Rubidium(87) atom at 50nK


h
λ= = × 1.2 10−6 m
3MkT
Nature of de Broglie waves

Our traditional understanding of a wave….


Adding up waves of different frequencies
A “Wave Packet”

Vg

v
Wave Envelope

 Wave Envelope
 The blue line represents the envelope
function
 This envelope can travel through space with
a different speed than the individual waves
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
____________________________
 The spread of wave packet

in wavelength depends on
the required degree of
localization in space – the
central wavelength is given
h
by λ=
p
 What is the velocity of the
wave packet?
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
________________________________
 The velocities of the individual waves which
superpose to produce the wave packet representing
the particle are different - the wave packet as a
whole has a different velocity from the waves that
comprise it
 Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the
wave propagates in space
 Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of
the wave packet propagates
Speeds Associated with Wave
Packet
 Speeds Associated with Wave Packet
 The phase speed of a wave in a wave packet is given
by
v phase = ω
k
 This is the rate of advance of a crest on a single wave
 The group speed is given by

v g = dω
dk
 This is the speed of the wave packet itself
Wave packet, phase velocity and
group velocity
________________________________
c2
Phase velocity vp =
v

Group velocity
vg = v
Here is the velocity of
c
light and v is the
velocity of the particle
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q An electron and proton have same velocity. Compare the wavelengths,
phase velocities and group velocities.

Hint:

electron = v = proton

Wavelengths: λ e = h/mev and λ p = h/mpv and me < mp so λ e >


λ p
Phase velocity: vp =c2/v so if v is same then phase velocity will
be same for both.
Group velocity: vg = v , so group velocity will be same for both.
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q Find the de Broglie wavelength of a 40 keV electron used in certain
electron microscope.

Hint: kinetic energy (T) =40 keV = p2/2m, then p = (2mT)1/2

λ = h/p
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q Find the de Broglie wavelength λ of a 1.0 mg grain blown by wind at a
speed 20 m / sec.

Hint:

λ = h / m v = h (1-v2/c2)1/2 / m0 v
Numerical questions related to de
Broglie waves
Q. 2
Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron, whose speed is
(a) 1 x 108 m/sec (b) 2 x 108 m/sec.

Hint:
λ = h / m v = h (1-v2/c2)1/2/ m0 v
Numerical questions related to de Broglie waves

Q1. A photon and particle have the same de Borglie wavelength. Can
anything be said how their linear momentum compare.

Hint: λ photon = λ particle

as λ = h / p therefore, if λ is same then p will be same for both photon


and particle.
Numerical questions related to de Broglie
waves

Q Find the KE of an electron whose de-Broglie wave length is same as that of


a100 keV x-ray.

HINT: For an x-ray photon E = 100 keV


E=hv=100 keV
hc/λ = 100 kev, from this λ can be determined
Now as given λ x-ray = λ electron

Therefore, λ =h/p implies p = h/ λ

If momentum of the electron is known, then its KE = (½)mv2 = p2/2m


can be determined.
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

In quantum mechanics no measurement can be 100% accurate


as with every moving particle a wave packet is associated, hence
it is impossible to locate the position and momentum of the
particle with 100 % confidence.

Wave packet

Δx
Acc to Heisenberg “The product of uncertainty in position of a
particle in certain direction and the component of linear
momentum of particle in same direction can never be less than
ħ/2 or h/4π”
i. e. Δx. Δpx ≥ ħ/2
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

The narrower is the wave packet more precisely the position of the
particle can be determined, however the wavelength in the narrow
packet can not be well defined, as there are not enough wavelengths to
measure λ accurately. This means that as p=h/λ can not be determined
accurately and vice -versa.

Δx is small but Δp is large

Δx is large but Δp is small


Measuring the position and momentum
of an electron

 Shine light on electron and detect reflected


light using a microscope

 Minimum uncertainty in position


is given by the wavelength of the
light

 So to determine the position


accurately, it is necessary to use
light with a short wavelength
Measuring the position and momentum
of an electron (cont’d)
 By Planck’s law E = hc/λ, a photon with a short
wavelength has a large energy

 Thus, it would impart a large ‘kick’ to the electron

 But to determine its momentum accurately,


electron must only be given a small kick

 This means using light of long wavelength!


Example of Baseball
 A pitcher throws a 0.1-kg baseball at 40 m/s

 So momentum is 0.1 x 40 = 4 kg m/s

 Suppose the momentum is measured to an accuracy


of 1 percent , i.e.,

 Δp = 0.01 p = 4 x 10-2 kg m/s


Example of Baseball (cont’d)

 The uncertainty in position is then

 No wonder one does not observe the effects


of the uncertainty principle in everyday life!
Numerical-THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (Applications)

Q1. Non-Existence of electron with in


the nucleus.
Hint:
let us consider an electron exist
with in nucleus therefore,
Diameter
maximum
10-14 m
Δx ~x = 10 -14 m

Now by uncertainty principle Δx .Δp ≥ ħ/2, Δp = ħ/2 Δx, Δp = 5.27 x 10 -21


Kgm/sec

As now actual linear momentum p can not be less than Δp (uncertainty in LM) so p ~ Δp

Therefore, minimum energy possessed by the electron if it is to stay with in the nucleus is E = p2/2m 96.4 MeV

Thus, to remain in side the nucleus the minimum energy of the electron should be 96.4 MeV, but it has been
found experimentally that no electron can possess energy more than 5 MeV. Thus electron can not exist with
in the nucleus.
Numerical-THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (Applications)

Q Compare the uncertainties in the velocities of an electron and a


proton confined in a 1.00 nm box.
Hint: On the basis of
uncertainty principle electron proton
1 x 10 -9 .Δpx ≥ ħ/2,
so Δpx = 0.527 x 10 -25 Kgm/sec for both
Δx= 1.00 nm box

Now as we know
that Δpx = me Δve , implies that Δve = 0.058 x 106 m/sec

Similarly, Δpx = mp Δvp , implies that Δvp = 0.058 x 102 m/sec

Therefore, Δve > Δvp


Numerical-THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (Applications)

Q An electron has a speed of 500 m/sec, correct up to 0.01 %,


with what minimum accuracy you can determine the
electron.
Hint:
Δvx = (0.01/ 100) x 500 = 0.05 m/sec. 500

Δpx = m Δvx = 9.1 10 -31 x 0.05 = 4.55 10 -32 Kg m Sec-1

Therefore on the basis of uncertainty principle Δx .Δpx ≥ ħ/2

Δx = ħ/ (2 X Δpx) = 2.316 mm.


HEISENBER
∆E ∆t ≥ / 2

E = hν 32 There is also an energy


t  10−8 s

∆ν 32

Transitions between en ν 32
Wave Function

 The wave function is often complex-valued


 The absolute square |ψ|2 = ψ∗ψ is always real
and positive
 The wave function contains within it all the
information that can be known about the
particle
Properties of the wave
function
 When squared, the wave function is a probability density (MaxBorn –
1926). The probability P(x) dx of a particle being between x and x+dx was
given in the equation:

The probability of the particle being between x1 and x2 is given by

The wave function must also be normalized so that the probability of the
particle being somewhere on the x axis is 1.
Wave Function
 The probabilistic interpretation of the wave function The wave function
is often complex-valued

 The absolute square |ψ|2 = ψ∗ψ is always real and positive


 ψ* is the complete conjugate of ψ

 It is proportional to the probability per unit volume of finding a particle at a


given point at some instant

 The wave function contains within it all the information that can be
known about the particle was first suggested by Max Born

 Erwin Schrödinger proposed a wave equation that describes the


manner in which the wave function changes in space and time

 This Schrödinger wave equation represents a key element in quantum mechanics


Wave Function of a Free
Particle
 Because the particle must be somewhere along
the x axis, the sum of all the probabilities over all
values of x must be 1


2
ab = dx
Pψ =1
−∞

 Any wave function satisfying this equation is said to be


normalized
 Normalization is simply a statement that the particle
exists at some point in space
Numerical problems related to probability and normalization

2/2
Q Find the value of normalization constant A for the wave function ψ = Axe − x

Hint: Probability of finding the particle equal to 1. square of the wave function
should be equal to 1.
x 2
−x 2 / 2 
∫  Axe  dx = 1
0 
Q2 The wave function of a particle is
(a) Find the value of A ψ = A cos 2 x for − π / 2 ≤ x ≤ π / 2
(b) Find the probability that the particle be found between x=0 and x= π / 4

HINT: (a) for the calculation of A apply normalization condition on the wave function
(b) After substituting the value of A in the wave function find the probability by
integrating with in the limits 0 to Pi/2
Expectation Values
 ψ is not a measurable quantity
 Measurable quantities of a particle can be derived from ψ
 The average position is called the expectation value of x and is defined as

The expectation value of any function g(x) for a normalized wave function:

Abbreviated Notation: ‹ψ *| g |ψ ›
Operators
Expectation Values
Momentum:

Energy:
Expectation value
the expectation value of momentum involves the representation of momentum
as a quantum mechanical operator.

Where

is the operator for the x component of momentum.


Expectation value

 Since the energy of a free particle is given by

and the expectation value for energy becomes

for a particle in one dimension.


Numerical problems related to Expectation values

Q Find the expectation value for the position x of a particle in a box L wide
assuming it in the ground state.

Hint: For ground state n=1

 nπx 
L
2
< x > = ∫ xψ 2 dx , whereψ = sin  
0
L  L 

L
Schrodinger’s Time dependent equation

Schrodinger equation is the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics in the


same sense
as the second law of motion of motion is the fundamental equation of classical
mechanics

The wave function associated with a moving particle is

i
− ( Et − px )
ψ = Ae 

The total energy of the sub-atomic particle is E =KE+PE = p2/2m +V


Time-independent Schrödinger equation
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
h2 2
Suppose potential is independent of time ih =− +2 Ψ
V ( x)
∂t 2∂
m x
V ( x, t ) =V ( x)
LHS involves only RHS involves only variation of Ψ
variation of Ψ with t with x (i.e. Hamiltonian operator
does not depend on t)

Look for a separated solution Ψ( x, t=) ψ( x)T (t )

Substitute: h2 ∂2 ∂
− [ψ( x +
)T ( t ) ] ψ
V ( x=) ( x t ) i h [ ( x )T (t ) ]
)T (ψ
2m ∂x 2 ∂ t
∂2 d 2ψ
2 [
ψ( x)T (t )] =T (t ) 2 etc
∂x dx
N.B. Total not partial
h2 d 2ψ dT derivatives now
− T +2 V (=x)ψT ψ
ih
2m dx dt
Eigenvalues and
Eigenfunctions
The values of energy for which the steady state Schrodinder equation can
be solved are called eigen values and the corresponding solutions (wave
functions) are called as eigen functions.
These words are derived from German words;
EIGEN WERT and EIGEN FUNKTION
eigen means proper or characteristic and wert means value.

 To obtain specific values for physical parameters, for example energy, you
operate on the wave function with the quantum mechanical operator
associated with that parameter
Eigen function and eigen value:

Eigen values Eigen functions

Εn ψn

Ε3 ψ3

Ε2
ψ2

Ε1 ψ1
Numerical problems related to Eigen values and eigen
function

Q An eigen function of the operator d2/dx2 is ψ = e3x. Find the corresponding


eigen value.

Hint: As we know that Eigen value equation is


here
ψ i = e3x
and Qop = d2/dx2

so when we apply the operator on the wave function the corresponding


eigen value comes
qi = 9.
Numerical problems related to Eigen values and eigen function

Q Determine the eigen energy values and eigen functions of a particle


trapped in a one dimensional box.

Hint:

2  nπx  n 2π 2  2
ψn = sin   and En =
L  L  2mL2
SUMMARY

Time-dependent Schrödinger equation h2 ∂ 2 Ψ ∂Ψ


− V ( x+, t ) ih Ψ =
2m ∂ x 2
t ∂
Probability interpretation and normalization

P ( x, t ) dx = Ψ( x, t ) dx ( x=, t) Ψ ( x, t) dx Ψ
2 *

+ ∞ + ∞
dx P ( x, t ) = ∫( xΨ, t )
2

Time-independent Schrödinger equation



− ∞
dx
− ∞
1 =

h2 d 2ψ

2m dx 2
V ( x+)ψ ( x) E ( x)ψ = Ψ ( x, t ) ψ (=x )T (t ) ( x )eψ− iEt
= /h

Conditions on wavefunction
single-valued, continuous, normalizable,
continuous first derivative
Particle in box:
Particle in a Box
 Particle in a Box
 A particle is confined to a one-
dimensional region of space

The “box” is one- dimensional

 The particle is bouncing


elastically back and forth
between two impenetrable walls
separated by L
Potential Energy for a Particle in
a Box
 As long as the particle is inside
the box, the potential energy does
not depend on its location

 We can choose this energy


value to be zero

 The energy is infinitely large if


the particle is outside the box

 This ensures that the wave


function is zero outside the box
Wave Function for the Particle in
a Box
 Since the walls are impenetrable, there is zero
probability of finding the particle outside the
box

ψ(x) = 0 for x < 0 and x > L

 The wave function must also be 0 at the walls


ψ(0) = 0 and ψ(L) = 0
Wave Function of a Particle in a
Box – Mathematical
 The wave function can be expressed as a real, sinusoidal
function
 2πx 
ψ (x ) = A sin  
 λ 
 Applying the boundary conditions and using the de
Broglie wavelength

 nπx 
ψ(x ) = A sin  
 L 
The Particle in a Box

and

n is the quantum number (n= 1, 2, 3,....),L is the


'length' of the (one dimensional) molecular box, m is
the mass of the particle (electron), and h is
Planck's constant.
Energy Level Diagram – Particle
in a Box
 The lowest allowed energy
corresponds to the ground
state

 En = n2E1 are called excited


states

 E = 0 is not an allowed state

 The particle can never be at


rest
Graphical Representations for a
Particle in a Box
Expectation value for position and linear momentum of
the particle in a one dimensional box:

As wave function or eigen function of the particle trapped in a box is known,


expectation value of position and momentum can be evaluated from it as:
nπx 
ψ= 2 Sin 
 
Lψ*xψ
x =∫0 dx
L  L 
but to calculate p is little complex as
Lψ* pψ Lψ* ∂ψ L 2 nπx ∂ 2 nπx 
p =∫0 dx =∫0 dx =∫0 Sin 
  Sin 
 dx
i ∂x L  L i ∂x L  L 
2 nπ L nπx  nπx
p = ∫0 Sin 
 Cos  dx
L i L  L   L 
xsin ax cos axdx = 1 sin 2 ax
Since ∫0
2a
2 nπ L  2 nπx L 1  2 nπx L
therefore p = sin = sin =0
i L L 2nπ 
 L 0 i L
 L 0
Strange result .
p2 n 2π2 2 nπ
As we know that E = ⇒P =± 2mE =± 2m =±
2m 2mL 2 L
thus , the paricle moves back and forth and average mo mentum is
nπ nπ

p = L L =0
2
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:

Q Find the energy of an electron contained in a box of dimension 1 Ao such that


its wave function has 5 nodes in the box.

Ans. The energy of en electron is

nπ  2 2 2
En = 2
2m
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:

Q A particle is described by the wave function

ψ ( x) = { 3 x ;0 < x < 1
0 ; Elsewhere
Find the probability that the particle can be found in int erval ( 0,1 / 2)

Ans : 1 / 8
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:

Q Think the nucleus as a box with the size of 10-14 m across. Compute the
lowest energy of a neutron confined in the nucleus.
Hint:
considering the nucleus as a cubical box of size 10-14 m.
so that x = y = z = 10-14 m

π  nx
2 2 2
n y
2
n
2
En =  2 + 2 + z2 
2m  x y z 
here x =  y =  z =  = 10 −14 m
and nx = n y = nz = 1
Numerical questions related to Particle in a box:

Q Show that wave functions for two different states are ortho-normal for a
particle in a one dimensional box.

Hint: the wave functions are said to be ortho-normal


if
L

0
ψ m*ψ n dx = 0 for m ≠ n

and the wave functions are said to normalized when


L

0
ψ m*ψ n dx = 1 for m = n

You might also like