Ece

Chapter 4
Motivating Self and Others
Chapter4,NancyLangtonandStephenP.Robbins,
Chapter Outline
Defining Motivation
Needs Theories of Motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
Responses to the Reward System
Creating a Motivating Workplace: Rewards and Job
Design
Evaluating the Use of Rewards in the Workplace
Theories of Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is motivation?
How do needs motivate people?
Are there other ways to motivate people?
Do equity and fairness matter?
How can rewards and job design motivate
employees?
What kinds of mistakes are made in reward
systems?
What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
a person shows in reaching a goal:
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Where effort is channelled
Persistence: How long effort is maintained
Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, will attempt to
avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened
with punishment if they are to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, are creative, seek
responsibility, and can exercise self-direction and selfcontrol.
Motivators
Intrinsic Motivators
A persons internal desire to do something, due to
such things as interest, challenge, and personal
satisfaction.
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person
and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and
other tangible rewards.
Needs Theories of Motivation

Basic idea
Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied,
will result in motivation
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

ERG Theory
McClellands Theory of Needs
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological
Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other
bodily needs.
Safety
Includes security and protection from physical
and emotional harm.
Social
Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance,
and friendship.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors such as selfrespect, autonomy, and achievement, and external
esteem factors such as status, recognition, and
attention.
Self-actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming; includes growth, achieving ones
potential, and self-fulfillment.
Exhibit 4-1
Selfactualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence
Concerned with providing basic material
existence requirements.
Relatedness
Desire for maintaining important interpersonal
relationships.
Growth
Intrinsic desire for personal development.
McClellands Theory of Needs

Need for achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise.
Need for affiliation

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Hygiene factors the sources of dissatisfaction
Extrinsic factors (context of work)
Company policy and administration

Unhappy relationship with employees supervisor
Poor interpersonal relations with ones peers
Poor working conditions
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Motivators the sources of satisfaction
Intrinsic factors (content of work)
Achievement
Recognition
Challenging, varied, or interesting work
Responsibility
Advancement
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Source:Reprintedby
permissionofHarvardBusiness
Review.Anexhibitfrom
FrederickHerzberg,OneMore
Time:HowDoYouMotivate
Employees?HarvardBusiness
Review81,no.1(January
2003),p.90.Copyright1987
bythePresidentandFellowsof
HarvardCollege;allrights
reserved.
Exhibit 4-2 Contrasting Views of

Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its
methodology.
The reliability of Herzbergs methodology is
questioned.
Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation.
No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
The theory is inconsistent with previous research.
Exhibit 4-3 Relationship of Various

Needs Theories
Maslow
Alderfer
Herzberg
McClelland
Growth
Motivators
Need for Achievement
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Need for Power
Relatedness
Hygiene
Factors
Need for Affiliation
Existence
Physiological
Summary: Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before
one progresses to higher-order needs.
Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be
dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction, however.
Motivators lead to satisfaction.
Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the same
time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to
satisfy a lower-level need increases.
McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their
motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are
related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation,
or power.
Summary: Impact of Theory

Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most
managers are familiar with it.
Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for
planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings.
Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.
Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the needs hierarchy. Tells us
that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make
good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they
do personally.
Summary: Support and Criticism of

Theory
Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In
particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of
needs. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.
Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation. Assumes a link
between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or
demonstrated.
Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent
with our knowledge of individual differences among people.
Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.
Process Theories of Motivation

Look at the actual process of motivation
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Expectancy Theory
The theory that individuals act depending on whether
their effort will lead to good performance, whether
good performance will be followed by a given
outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to
them.
Expectancy Relationships
The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-Performance Relationship
The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance
Performance-Reward Relationship
The degree to which the individual believes that performing at
a particular level will lead to a desired outcome
Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individuals personal goals or needs and are attractive to the
individual
Exhibit 4-5 How Does Expectancy

Theory Work?
My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Effort
Performance Link
No matter how much effort

I put in, probably not possible
to memorize the text in 24
hours
E=0
Instrumentality
Performance
Rewards Link
My professor does not look

like someone who has $1 million
Valence
Rewards
Personal Goals
Link
There are a lot of wonderful things
I could do with $1 million
I=0
V=1
Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.
Exhibit 4-6
Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using
Expectancy Theory
Improving Expectancy
Improve the ability of the
individual to perform
Make sure employees have skills
for the task
Provide training
Assign reasonable tasks and goals
Improving Instrumentality
Increase the individuals belief that
performance will lead to reward
Observe and recognize performance
Deliver rewards as promised
Indicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater
rewards
Improving Valence
Make sure that the reward is
meaningful to the individual
Ask employees what rewards they
value
Give rewards that are valued
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead
to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended.
Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance
than do easy goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than

does the generalized goal of do your best.
The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?

Goals:
Direct attention
Regulate effort
Increase persistence
Encourage the development of strategies and
action plans
Goals Should Be SMART

For goals to be effective, they should be
SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results-oriented
Time-bound
Exhibit 4-7 Lockes Model of

Goal Setting
Directing attention
Goals
motivate
by . . .
Regulating effort
Increasing persistence
Task
performance
Encouraging the development

of strategies and action plans
Source:AdaptedfromE.A.LockeandG.P.Latham,ATheoryofGoalSettingandTask
Performance(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1980).ReprintedbypermissionofEdwinA.
Locke.
Contingency Factors in
Goal Setting
Self-efficacy
An individuals belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
Responses to the
Reward System
Equity Theory
Fair Process and Treatment
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Exhibit 4-8
Equity Theory
Ratio of Output to
Input
Person 1s Perception
Person 1
Person 2
Inequity, underrewarded
Person 1
Equity
Person 2
Person 1
Inequity, overrewarded
Person 2
Equity Theory
Main points:
Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then respond
so as to eliminate any inequities.
Equity theory recognizes that individuals are
concerned not only with the absolute amount of
rewards for their efforts, but also with the
relationship of this amount to what others
receive.
Responses to Inequity
Change their inputs.

Change their outcomes.
Adjust perceptions of self.
Adjust perceptions of others.
Choose a different referent.
Leave the field.

Historically, equity theory focused on
Distributive justice.
However, equity should also consider

Procedural justice.

Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals.
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the
distribution of rewards.
Interactional Justice
The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a
manager.

The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work
effort that was previously rewarded
intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall
level of a persons motivation.
Motivators
Intrinsic
A persons internal desire to do something, due to
such things as interest, challenge, and personal
satisfaction.
Extrinsic
Motivation that comes from outside the person,
such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
Four Key Rewards to Increase

Intrinsic Motivation
1.Sense of choice
2.Sense of competence
3.Sense of meaningfulness
4.Sense of progress
Managers can act in ways that will build these
intrinsic rewards for their employees.
Exhibit 4-9 Building Blocks for

Intrinsic Rewards
Leading for Choice
Leading for Competence
Delegated authority
Trust in workers
Knowledge
Information
High, non-comparative standards
Positive feedback
Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
Skill recognition
Challenge
A clear purpose
Leading for Meaningfulness
Leading for Progress
A noncynical climate
Clearly identified passions
A collaborative climate
An exciting vision
Celebrations
Access to customers
Relevant task purposes

Whole tasks
Milestones
Measurement of improvement
Source:Reprintedwithpermissionofthepublisher.FromIntrinsicMotivationatWork:BuildingEnergyand
Commitment.CopyrightK.Thomas.BerrettKoehlerPublishersInc.,SanFrancisco,CA.Allrightsreserved.
www.bkconnection.com.
Employee Recognition
Employee recognition programs use multiple
sources and recognize both individual and
group accomplishments.
In contrast to most other motivators,
recognizing an employees superior
performance often costs little or no money.
Variable-Pay Programs
A portion of an employees pay is based on some
individual and/or organizational measure of
performance.
Individual-based
Piece-rate wages, bonuses
Group-based
Gainsharing
Organizational-based
Profit sharing
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)
Variable Pay Programs: IndividualBased Incentives

Piece-rate pay plans
Employees are paid a fixed sum for each unit of
production completed.
Bonuses
One-time rewards for defined work rather than
ongoing entitlements.
Variable Pay Programs:

Group-Based Incentives
Gainsharing
An incentive plan where improvements in group
productivity determine the total amount of
money that is allocated.
Variable Pay Programs:

Organizational-Based Incentives
Profit-Sharing Plans
Organization-wide programs that distribute
compensation based on some established formula
designed around a companys profitability.
Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Company-established benefit plans in which
employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Research Findings
Linking variable-pay programs and expectancy
theory:
Variable-pay programs seem to be consistent with
expectancy theory predictions.
Employees are motivated when there is a
perceived strong relationship between
performance and rewards.
Motivating Beyond Productivity

Commissions beyond sales
Customer satisfaction and/or sales team outcomes, such as
meeting revenue or profit targets.
Leadership effectiveness
Employee satisfaction, or how the manager handles his or
her employees.
New goals
All employees who contribute to specific organizational
goals, such as customer satisfaction, cycle time, or quality
measures.
Rewards for Other Types of

Performance
Knowledge workers in teams
Performance of knowledge workers and/or professional
employees who work on teams.
Competency and/or skills

Abstract knowledge or competenciesfor example,
knowledge of technology, the international business
context, customer service, or social skills.
Skill-based
Pay is based on how many skills an employee has, or how
many jobs he or she can do.
Exhibit 4-11 Comparing Various Pay

Programs
Designing Motivating Jobs

Job Characteristic Model (JCM) is a model that identifies
five core job dimensions and their relationship to personal
and work outcomes.
Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs.
Employee does a complete activity.
Expands the employees freedom and independence,

increases responsibility, and provides feedback.
JCM Core Job Dimensions
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
JCM Critical Psychological States

Experienced meaningfulness
Experienced responsibility for outcomes
Knowledge of the actual results
Exhibit 4-12 Examples of High and

Low Job Characteristics
Skill Variety
High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and
interacts with customers
Low variety A body shop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
High identity A cabinet maker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes
it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs
Task Significance
High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit

Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, makes visits without
supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly
specified procedure
Feedback
High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to determine if it operates
properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control
inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed adjustments
Source:G.Johns,OrganizationalBehavior:UnderstandingandManagingLifeatWork,4thed.Copyright1997.AdaptedbypermissionofPearsonEducation,
Inc.,UpperSaddleRiver,NJ.
Exhibit 4-13 The Job

Characteristics Model
Core job
dimensions
Critical
psychological states
Personal and
work outcomes
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Experienced
meaningfulness
of the work
High internal
work motivation
Autonomy
Experienced
responsibility
for outcomes
of the work
Feedback
Knowledge of the
actual results of
the work activities
High-quality
work performance
High satisfaction
with the work
Low absenteeism
and turnover
Employee growthneed strength
Source:J.R.Hackman,G.R.
Oldham,WorkDesign(excerpted
frompages7880).Copyright
1980byAddisonWesley
PublishingCo.Reprintedby
permissionofAddisonWesley
Longman.
Beware the Signals That Are Sent By

Rewards
Often reward systems do not reflect organizational
goals:
Individuals are stuck in old patterns of rewards and
recognition.
Stick to rewarding things that can be easily measured.
Organizations dont look at the big picture.

Subunits compete with each other.
Management and shareholders focus on short-term results.
Exhibit 4-14
Management Reward Follies
We hope for:
But we reward:
Teamwork and collaboration
The best team members
Innovative thinking and risk-taking
Proven methods and not making

mistakes
Development of people skills

Employee involvement and
empowerment
Technical achievements and

accomplishments
High achievement
Tight control over operations and

resources
Long-term growth; environmental

responsibility
Another years effort
Commitment to total quality

Candor; surfacing bad news early
Quarterly earnings
Shipment on schedule, even with defects
Reporting good news, whether its true

Source:ConstructedfromS.Kerr,OntheFollyofRewardingA,WhileHopingforB,AcademyofManagementExecutive9,no.1(1995),pp.714;andMoreontheFolly,
or not; agreeing with the manager,
AcademyofManagementExecutive9,no.1(1995),pp.1516.Reprintedbypermission.
whether or not (s)hes right
Caveat Emptor: Apply Motivation

Theories Wisely
Motivation Theories Are Culture-Bound
Canada and US rely on extrinsic rewards more
than other countries.
Japan and Germany rarely use individual
incentives.
Japan emphasizes group rewards.
China is more likely to give bonuses to everyone.

Exhibit 4-15 Snapshots of Cultural

Differences in Motivation
Japan: Sales representatives preferred being members of a successful
team with shared goals and values, rather than financial rewards.
Russia:Cotton mill employees given either valued extrinsic rewards
(North American T-shirts with logos, childr ens sweatpants, tapes of
North American music, etc.) or praise and rewards were more productive.
However, rewards did not help for those who worked on
Saturdays.
China: Bonuses often given to everyone, r egardless of individual
productivity. Many employees expect jobs for life, rather than jobs based
on performance.
Mexico: Employees prefer immediate feedback on their work. Therefore
daily rewards for exceeding quotas are preferred.
Canada and the United States:Managers rely more heavily on extrinsic
motivators.
Japan and Germany:Firms rarely give rewards based on individual
performance.
Can We Just Eliminate Rewards?

Alfie Kohn suggests that organizations should focus
less on rewards, more on creating motivating
environments:
Abolish Incentives.
Re-evaluate Evaluation.
Create Conditions for Authentic Motivation.
Encourage Collaboration.
Enhance Content.
Provide Choice.
Putting It All Together

What we know about motivating employees in organizations:
Recognize individual differences.
Employees have different needs.
Dont treat them all alike.
Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each
employee.
Use goals and feedback.
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.
Link rewards to performance.
Check the system for equity.
Summary and Implications

1. What is Motivation?
Motivation is the process that accounts for an

individuals intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort toward reaching the goal.
2. How do needs motivate people?
All needs theories of motivation propose a

similar idea: individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation.

3. Are there other ways to motivate people?
Process theories focus on the broader picture of how

someone can set about motivating another individual.
Process theories include expectancy theory and goalsetting theory (and its application, management by
objectives).
4. Do equity and fairness matter?
Individuals look for fairness in the reward system.

Rewards should be perceived by employees as related to
the inputs they bring to the job.

5.
How can rewards and job design motivate employees?

Recognition helps employees feel that they matter.
Employers can use variable-pay programs to reward
performance. Employers can use job design to motivate
employees. Jobs that have variety, autonomy, feedback, and
similar complex task characteristics tend to be more
motivating for employees.
6. What kinds of mistakes are made in reward systems?
Often reward systems do not reward the performance that is
expected. Also, reward systems sometimes do not recognize
that rewards are culture-bound.
OB at Work
For Review
1. What are the implications of Theories X and
Y for motivation practices?
2. Identify the variables in expectancy theory.
3. Describe the four ways in which goal
setting motivates.
4. Explain cognitive evaluation theory. How
applicable is it to management practice?
For Review
5. What are the pluses and minuses of variable-pay
programs from an employees viewpoint? From
managements viewpoint?
6. What is an ESOP? How might it positively influence
employee motivation?
7. Describe the five core dimensions in the JCM.
8. Describe three jobs that score high on the JCM.
Describe three jobs that score low.
9. What can firms do to create more motivating
environments for their employees?
For Critical Thinking

1. Identify three activities you really enjoy (for example, playing
tennis, reading a novel, going shopping). Next, identify three
activities you really dislike (for example, visiting the dentist,
cleaning the house, following a low-fat diet). Using expectancy
theory, analyze each of your answers to assess why some
activities stimulate your effort while others dont.
2. Identify five different bases by which organizations can
compensate employees. Based on your knowledge and
experience, is performance the basis most used in practice?
Discuss.

3.
4.
Employee recognition may be motivational for the

moment, but it doesnt have any staying power. Why?
Because employees cant take recognition to Roots or
The Bay! Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.
Performance cant be measured, so any effort to link
pay with performance is a fantasy. Differences in
performance are often caused by the system, which
means the organization ends up rewarding the
circumstances. Its the same thing as rewarding the
weather forecaster for a pleasant day. Do you agree or
disagree with this statement? Support your position.

5. Your textbook argues for recognizing individual differences.
It also suggests paying attention to members of diverse
groups. Does this view contradict the principles of equity
theory? Discuss.
Breakout Group Exercises

Form small groups to discuss the following topics:
1. One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings
and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. Choose one of the
available theories and indicate how the theory explains the members
current behaviour and how the theory could be used to motivate the
group member to perform more responsibly.
2. You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and
would like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes.
Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory
explains the instructors current behaviour. How could you as a
student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively
classes?
Breakout Group Exercises

3. Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to
recommend to instructors that the average course mark should be a
B. This was the result of a study showing that more than 50
percent of students were receiving an A or A- for coursework.
Harvard students are often referred to as the best and the
brightest, and they pay $27 000 (US) for their education, so they
expect high grades. Discuss the impact of this change in policy on
the motivation of Harvard students to study harder.
Exhibit 4-16 2005 Compensation of

Canadas Most Overpaid CEOs
CEO(s)
Was Paid (3-Yr Avg.)
Should Have Been

Paid
Amount Overpaid
1. Ian Telfer/Robert McEwen

Goldcorp
Vancouver, BC
$32 823 000
$1 313 000
$31 510 000
2. E. Melnyk
Biovail
Mississauga, Ontario
$23 392 000
$1 404 000
$21 988 000
3. Richard Smith/David Stein

CoolBrands
Markham, Ontario
$9 647 000
$675 000
$8 972 000
4. Jeffrey Orr/Robert Gratton

Power Financial Corporation
Montreal, Quebec
$76 139 000
$9 898 000
$66 241 000
5. Gerald Schwartz
Onex
Toronto, Ontario
$26 163 000
$4 709 000
$21 454 000
Supplemental Material
Slides for activities I do in my own
classroom
Exercise on Motivation Theories

Jesse has been underperforming at work, coming in
late, and causing some problems with the other
workers. Previously, Jesse had been one of your star
employees. Using the theory assigned to your group,
explain what steps you might take to motivate Jesse to
perform better.
Describe the plan.
Indicate how the plan relates to the theory.
Theories to Apply
Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene (Two-Factor)
Theory
Expectancy
Goal-Setting Theory
Equity

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Chapter 4

Motivating Self and Others

Theory X and Theory Y

Needs Theories of Motivation

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Alderfers ERG Theory

McClellands Theory of Needs

Need for power

Need for affiliation

Company policy and administration

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Exhibit 4-2 Contrasting Views of

Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Exhibit 4-3 Relationship of Various

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Summary: Hierarchy of Needs

Summary: Impact of Theory

Summary: Support and Criticism of

Process Theories of Motivation

Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship

Exhibit 4-5 How Does Expectancy

No matter how much effort

My professor does not look

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than

How Does Goal Setting Motivate?

Goals Should Be SMART

Exhibit 4-7 Lockes Model of

Encouraging the development

Change their inputs.

Fair Process and Treatment

However, equity should also consider

Fair Process and Treatment

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Four Key Rewards to Increase

Exhibit 4-9 Building Blocks for

Leading for Competence

High, non-comparative standards

Leading for Meaningfulness

Leading for Progress

Relevant task purposes

Variable Pay Programs: IndividualBased Incentives

Variable Pay Programs:

Variable Pay Programs:

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Motivating Beyond Productivity

Rewards for Other Types of

Competency and/or skills

Exhibit 4-11 Comparing Various Pay

Designing Motivating Jobs

Expands the employees freedom and independence,

JCM Core Job Dimensions

JCM Critical Psychological States

Exhibit 4-12 Examples of High and

High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit

Exhibit 4-13 The Job

Employee growthneed strength

Beware the Signals That Are Sent By

Organizations dont look at the big picture.

Management and shareholders focus on short-term results.