Session - 6 Statistics and Data Analysis

Session 6
Data Analysis
Session Speaker
K.M. Sharath Kumar
1
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Session Objectives
>_To explain the relevance of data analysis for
carrying out
research
>_To explore different types of data analysis
techniques for effective interpretation
>_To critique and recommend appropriate
exploratory data analysis techniques for a
problem
2
Session Outline
Sampling Design
Data Collection Methods
Quantitative and Qualitative Data Analysis
Stages in Data Analysis
Review of Techniques
Error Analysis
3
4
One Variant
6,200 Distinct Parts
Imported from 17 Countries
From 240 Suppliers
Assembled in 1 Plant
Within few minutes
Exported to 34 Countries
Same day
Without becoming inventory!
Suzuki Grand Vitara
5
The secret of success is to know

something nobody else knows
- Aristotle Onassis
6
Turn Data into Insight

Insight into Action
Action into Tangible Results
- Accenture
7
Data Analysis
(1/2)
Explore relationships among the variables

Partition the total variability (by statement /
variance component analysis)
Handle noisy data appropriately
Questions to be answered:
Is the process stable?
Is the process capable of meeting
specifications?
What are the major sources of variation
(noise, etc)?
Listen
Listen to
to what
what the
the data
data is
is saying
saying
8
Data Analysis (2/2)

Data Analysis is carried out in two distinct
environment
Result of a special study or Experiment
By product of some operations or Observational
Experimental Studies
Here we compare various condition and try to

determine which condition is better. We have
finite amount of data and carry out one time
analysis
Observational Studies
Here we get data from steady state process and

trying to find out any unplanned change is
occurred or not. Generally we perform a 9
Classification of Data Analysis

Quantitative
vs.
Explanation through
numbers
Objective
Deductive reasoning
Predefined variables and
measurement
Data collection before
analysis
Cause and effect
relationships
Qualitative
Explanation through words
Subjective
Inductive reasoning
Creativity, extraneous
variables
Data collection and
analysis intertwined
Description, meaning
10
Ambushed Every Where
11
Data analysis should be:

Supported by data
Shown in graphical and statistical
format
Not based on intuition
Make sense from an engineering
standpoint
Data
Data and
and Hard
Hard
Evidence!!
Evidence!!
12
Key Components of a Data

Analysis Plan
Purpose of the evaluation
Questions
What you hope to learn from the
question
Analysis technique
How data will be presented
13
Types of Data
Continuous Data
Discrete Data
14
Continuous Data
Data generated by
Physically measuring the characteristic
Generally using an instrument
Assigning an unique value to each item
Examples:
Time to receive a shipment, Time spend per page, Time to
activate, CPU Speed, Total Minutes per Incident (TMPI),
etc.
Hardness, Strength, Weight, Diameter, etc.
15
Discrete Data
Data generated by
Classifying the items into different groups based on
some criteria
No physical measurement is involved
Examples:
Sex, Shade variation, Surface defects etc.
% of visitors signing in for AOL messenger per day,
Number of Recharges per Month , Number of Operating
Systems, % Escalations, etc .
16
Continuous Data: Example (Time spend per page visit (in

minutes))
SL No.
Data
SL No.
Data
0.98
11
1.02
1.03
12
0.98
1.00
13
1.01
1.00
14
1.01
0.99
15
0.99
1.01
16
1.00
0.97
17
1.01
1.02
18
0.99
1.00
19
1.00
10
0.99
20
1.02
17
Continuous Data: Example (Time spend per visit (in

minutes))
Graphical Representation
18
Random Variables
0
BBBB
BGBB
GBBB
BBBG
BBGB
GGBB
GBBG
BGBG
BGGB
GBGB
BBGG
BGGG
GBGG
GGGB
GGBG
GGGG
1
X
3
4
Sample Space
Points on the
Real Line
19
Random Variables (Continued)
Suppose, the random variable X = 3 when any of the four

outcomes BGGG, GBGG, GGBG, or GGGB occurs,
P(X = 3) = P(BGGG) + P(GBGG) + P(GGBG) + P(GGGB)
= 4/16
The probability distribution of a random variable is a table
that lists the possible values of the random variables and their
associated probabilities.
x
0
1
2
3
4
TheGraphical
GraphicalDisplay
Displayfor
forthis
this
The
ProbabilityDistribution
Distribution
Probability
shownon
onthe
thenext
nextSlide.
Slide.
isisshown
P(x)
1/16
4/16
6/16
4/16
1/16
16/16=1
20
Random Variables (Continued)

Probability Distribution of the Number of Girls in Four Births
0.4
6/ 16
Probability, P(X)
0.3
4/ 16
4/ 16
0.2
0.1
1/ 16
0.0
1/ 16
2
Number of Girls, X
21
Example
Consider the experiment of tossing two six-sided dice. There are 36 possible
outcomes. Let the random variable X represent the sum of the numbers on
the two dice:
x
P(x)
x
P(x)
3
1,3
2,3
3,3
4,3
5,3
6,3
4
1,4
2,4
3,4
4,4
5,4
6,4
5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
6
1,6
2,6
3,6
4,6
5,6
6,6
7
8
9
10
11
12
P ro b a b ility Dis trib utio n o f S um o f Two Dic e
0.17
0.12
p(x)
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
5,1
6,1
2
1,2
2,2
3,2
4,2
5,2
6,2
2
2
1/36
1/36
3
3
2/36
2/36
4
4
3/36
3/36
5
5
4/36
4/36
6
6
5/36
5/36
7
7
6/36
6/36
8
8
5/36
5/36
9
9
4/36
4/36
0.07
0.02
2
10
11
12
22
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
23
Generic Causes Of Variation

Machines
Materials
Methods
Measurements
Mother Nature
PP
RR
OO
CC
EE
SS
SS
People
24
THE NORMAL CURVE
Smooth curve
interconnecting the
center of each bar
Center of the bar
Units of
Measure
25
Normal Distribution
If the frequency distribution of a set of
values is such that :
68.26% of the values lie within 1 from
the mean
AND
the mean
AND
the mean
Then the distribution is normal.

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION IS
CHARACTERISED BY A BELL SHAPED
CURVE.
26
Standard Normal Distribution

Since each normal variables have different units of
measurement
Standard Normal Distribution can tackle this
Standard Normal Variable Z = (x ) /
First convert the original problem
probability table for Z will be available
into
Z.
The
27
Sampling Design
28
Samples and Populations
Population
(N)
Sample
(n)
29
Sampling Design within the Research

Process
Question
hierarchy
Sample Type
Define Relevant
Population
Sampling
technique
Identify existing
sampling frame
Evaluate
sampling frame
Probability
Non-Probability
Dont
accept
Modify
sampling frame
Select
sampling frame
Draw
sample
30
Types of Sampling
Non-Probability
Sampling
Probability
Sampling
Convenience
Sampling
Simple
Random
Sampling
Stratified
Random
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Expert
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
31
Stratified Random Sampling
Instratified
stratified random
random sampling,
sampling,we
weassume
assumethat
thatthe
the
In
populationof
ofNNunits
unitsmay
maybe
bedivided
dividedinto
into m
mgroups
groupswith
withNNi
population
i
unitsin
ineach
eachgroup
group i=1,2,...,m.
i=1,2,...,m. The
Them
mstrata
strataare
are
units
nonoverlappingand
andtogether
togetherthey
theymake
makeup
upthe
thetotal
total
nonoverlapping
population:NN1+
+NN2+...+
+...+
=N.
Population
population:
NNmm=N.
1
2
Stratum1
N1
Stratum 2
N2
The
The m
m strata
strata are
are
non-overlapping.
non-overlapping.
Ni N
Stratum m
Nm
i 1
32
Systematic Random Sampling

Units are drawn from the population at regular
intervals clearly defined
Steps
- Compute K =(N/n) and take integer value. K is called
sampling interval
- Select a random number between 1 and k
- Starting with this number, select every kth number
until all the n units are selected
33
Example
Suppose in a market survey, you have to select 5
households out of 50 households in a block.
- Number of units in the population N = 50
- Number of units in the sample n = 5
- Sampling Interval K = (N/n) = 50/5 = 10
- Select a random number between 1 and 10
Suppose the selected random number is 5. Starting
with 5, select every 10th unit.
34
Example Contd.
1
13
22
31
40
49
2
14
23
32
41
50
3
15
24
33
42
4 5
16
25
34
43
6 7
17
26
35
44
8 9
18
27
36
45
10
19
28
37
46
11
20
29
38
47
12
21
30
39
48
35
Cluster Sampling
Group
Population
Population Distribution
Distribution
Sample
Sample
Distribution
Distribution
Instratified
stratifiedsampling
sampling
In
randomsample
sample(n
(n)i)
aarandom
i
chosenfrom
fromeach
each
isischosen
segmentof
ofthe
the
segment
population(N
(N).
i).
population
i
Incluster
clustersampling
sampling
In
observationsare
aredrawn
drawn
observations
from m
mout
outof
ofM
Mareas
areasor
or
from
clustersof
ofthe
the
clusters
population.
population.
36
Caution
None of the Non-probability sampling

should be generalised about the
population
37
Sampling Distribution
- A conceptual framework
38
Sampling Distribution of the

Mean from Normal Population
If X1, X2,.., Xn are n independent random samples
drawn from a normal population with mean and
standard deviation ,
then
the sampling distribution of X follows a normal
distribution with mean and standard deviation /
sqrt(n)
2 ....... n
i
1
X
X
n
X X
Standard deviation of the sample mean =

standard error
=
39
Sample Size and Standard Error
The sample
sample size
size determines
determines the
the bound
bound of
of aa statistic,
statistic,
The
since the
the standard
standard error
error of
of aa statistic
statistic shrinks
shrinks as
as the
the
since
sample size
size increases:
increases:
sample
Sample size = 2n
Standard error
of statistic
Sample size = n
Standard error
of statistic
40
Determining Sample Size
41
Determining Sample Size

using Confidence Interval
If we know the precision (sampling error), the

confidence level, and the standard deviation
of the original population the sample size can
be determined
42
Sample Size Determination

Population Mean
Sampling Error E = X , squaring both sides we get
Z
E
2
Where Z is the value corresponding to the area of

((1-) / 2) from the mean of the standard normal
distribution
43
Example
A marketing manager of a fast food restaurant in a
city wishes to estimate the average yearly amount
that families spend on fast food restaurants. He wants
the estimate to be within + or Rs. 100 with a
confidence interval of 99%. It is known from an earlier
pilot study that the standard deviation of the family
expenditure on fast food restaurant is Rs. 500. How
many families must be chosen for this problem?
44
Solution
Z
E
2
Applying the formula n
n = ((2.58^2) * (500^2)) / (100^2) = 166.41

= 166 (ROUNDED OFF)
45
Sample Size Determination

Population Proportion
We know
pP
p (1 p )
n
Sampling Error E = (p-P), squaring both sides and

simplifying
We get:
n Z
p (1 p )
Where Z is the value corresponding to the area of

((1-) / 2) from the proportion of the standard
normal distribution
46
Example
A company manufacturing sports goods wants to
estimate the proportion of cricket players among high
school students in India. The company wants the
estimate to be within + or 0.03 with a confidence
interval of 99%. A pilot study done earlier reveals that
out of 80 high school students, 36 students play
cricket. What should be the sample size?
47
Solution
p = 36/80 = 0.45
Applying the formula
n = ((2.58^2) (0.45(1-0.45)))/(0.03^2)
n = 1831
48

Primary Data Collection
Secondary Data Collection
49

Primary Data
Observation method
Interview method
Questionnaires
Warranty cards
Mechanical devices
Secondary Data
Agency
Published material etc.
50
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale - groups or classes
Gender
Ordinal Scale - order matters

Ranks (top ten videos)
Interval Scale - difference or distance matters

has arbitrary zero value
Temperatures (0F, 0C)
Ratio Scale - Ratio matters has a natural

zero value
Salaries
Likerts Scale
51
Sample Rating Scales

Simple category scale: (data: nominal)
Ex:
I plan to purchase a laptop in next twelve months
Yes
No
52

Multiple choice Single response scale (data:
nominal)
Ex:
What newspaper do you read most often?
TOI
DH
The Hindu
Mint
Others (specify:_________)
53

Likert Scale (data: interval)
Ex:
The internet is superior to traditional libraries for
comprehensive searches
Strongly
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
54

Semantic Differential Scale (data: interval)
Ex:
Lands end catalog
Fast ___: ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Slow
55

Numerical Scale (data: ordinal or interval)
Ex:
Extremely
Favourable
3
2
1
Extremely
Unfavourable
Employees cooperation in teams___

Employees knowledge of task ___
Employees planning effectiveness ___
56

Multiple rating list scale (data: interval)
Ex:
Please indicate how important or unimportant each
service characteristic is:
Important
Unimportant
Fast reliable repair
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Service at my location
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Maintenance by manufacturer
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Knowledgeable technicians
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Service contract after warranty 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
57

Constant-Sum Scale (data: ratio)
Ex:
Taking all the supplier characteristics we have just
discussed and now considering cost, what is their
relative importance to you (dividing 100 units
between)
Being one of the lowest cost suppliers
All other aspects of supplier performance
Sum
100
58

Stapel Scale (data: ordinal or interval)
Ex:
Company Name
+3
+3
+3
+2
+2
+2
+1
+1
+1
Technology
Existing
Reputation
Leader
Products
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-3
-3
-3
59

Graphic rating scale (data: ordinal or interval or
ratio)
Ex:
How likely are you to recommend complete care to
others?
Very Likely
Very Unlikely
60
Data Analysis
61
The cure for boredom is curiosity ,

There is no cure for curiosity
- Dorothy Parker
62
Blind men and an elephant

- Indian fable
Things arent always what we think!

Six blind men go to observe an elephant. One feels the side and thinks the
elephant is like a wall. One feels the tusk and thinks the elephant is a like a
spear. One touches the squirming trunk and thinks the elephant is like a
snake. One feels the knee and thinks the elephant is like a tree. One
touches the ear, and thinks the elephant is like a fan. One grasps the tail and
thinks it is like a rope. They argue long and loud and though each was partly
in the right, all were in the wrong.
For a detailed version of this fable see:
letter=B&spage=3
http://www.wordinfo.info/words/index/info/view_unit/1/?
63
Stages in Data Analysis

Error checking
and verification
Editing
coding
Data entry
Key Boarding
Data
Analysis
Descriptive
analysis
Bivariate
analysis
Univariate
analysis
Interpretation
Multivariate
analysis
64
Descriptive Analysis Techniques
Count (frequencies)
Percentage
Mean
Mode
Median
Range
Standard deviation
Variance
Ranking
65
Overview of the Stages in Data Analysis
Error checking
and verification
Editing
coding
Data entry
Key Boarding
Data
Analysis
Descriptive
analysis
Bivariate
analysis
Univariate
analysis
Interpretation
Multivariate
analysis
66
Frequency Distributions
To what extent did you increase your skills in

putting together a household budget?
Women (N=30)
A lot
Some
A little
Not at all
14
Uni-variate Analysis The analysis of a single variable, for

purposes of description (examples: frequency distribution,
averages, and measures of dispersion)
67
Percentage Distributions
To what extent did you increase your skills in

putting together a household budget?
Women (N=30)
A lot
Some
A little
Not at all
46%
30%
17%
7%
68
Graphing Frequency Data

How did you first hear about the web-site?
Court Referral
Social Worker
Friend or Acquaintan
Librarian
Web Search Engine
Newspaper Story
Other
69
Means and Medians
Math
History
English
English
History
Biology
Music
Latin
Biology
Math
98
95
96
95
93
94
92
93
98
Latin
Music
Gym
Gym
92
94
40
Mean = 87
Median = 94
70
Note
40
50
55
94
100 100 100
Mean = 81
40
92
93
94
95
Mean = 87
96
98
71
Histograms
72
Cross Tabulations
73
Graphing comparisons
Satisfaction with Services
40
Satisfaction Score
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
A
Clinic Name
74

16
Satisfaction Score
14
12
10
Staff
Advice
Facility
8
6
4
2
0
A
Clinic
75

16
Satisfaction Score
14
12
A
B
C
D
E
10
8
6
4
2
0
Staff
Advice
Facility
Satisfaction Component
76
Error checking
and verification
Editing
coding
Data entry
Key Boarding
Data
Analysis
Descriptive
analysis
Bivariate
analysis
Univariate
analysis
Interpretation
Multivariate
analysis
77
Bi-variate Analysis
The analysis of two variables simultaneously

for determining the empirical relationship
between them
Y = f (X)
78
Few Techniques Available
Correlation
Regression
Chi-square Test and Cramers rule
Hypothesis Test for two population means/proportions
Paired T-tests comparing two groups
79
Measure of Correlation:
of Correlation
SymbolCoefficient
:r
Range : -1 to 1
Sign : Type of correlation
Value : Degree of correlation
Examples:
r = 0.6 , 60 % positive correlation
r = -0.82, 82% negative correlation
r = 0, No correlation
80
Regression
Regression helps
To identify the exact form of the relationship
To model output in terms of input or process variables
y=a+bx
Examples:
Yield = 5 + 3 x Time
Y = 2 - 5x
81
Coefficient of Regression
Measure of degree of Relationship
Symbol : R2
Range of R2 : 0 to 1
If R2 > 0.6, the Model is reasonably good
82
Error or Residual Analysis

Root Mean Square Error for Prediction
(MSEP)
x
65
8
89
88
50
73
y
69
78
8
21
24
72
Regression Statistics
Multiple R
0.594159006
R Square
0.353024925
Adjusted R Square
0.191281156
Standard Error
27.80337004
Observations
6
Intercept
x
Coefficients
83.00449781
-0.605970474
83
Root Mean Square Error:

x
65
8
89
88
50
73
y
69
78
8
21
24
72
Predicted y
43.62
78.16
29.07
29.68
52.71
38.77
Error
25.38
-0.16
-21.07
-8.68
-28.71
33.23
Sum
Error Square
644.33
0.02
444.08
75.33
824.03
1104.32
3092.11
Predicted y = 83.0045 0.6059 x

Error = y predicted y
Mean Square Error = 3092.11 / 6 = 515.35
Root Mean Square Error = 22.70
84
Difference between Observed Values Yi and model

predicted values f(Xi) for n datasets
Decomposition of MSEP has been carried out
using mean bias (UM), slope bias (UR) and random
error (UD)
f ( X i ) Y / MSEP
U S X * (1 b j ) 2 / MSEP
R
1 r * SY / MSEP
2
85
Logistic Regression
Objective
To develop a mathematical model for an attribute or response metric
(Y) in terms of other available attributes (Xs).
When to Use
Xs : Continuous
Y : Discrete binary
86
Hypothesis Test for Difference

between Two Means
Objective
To test hypothesis that compare the population
mean of interest for two separate populations
(independent samples)
Test Statistic (Large Sample)
2
Sample)
1
X X
12
22
n n
1
Test Statistic (Small
X X

n1 n2
1
87
Chi-Square Test
Objective:
To test whether two variables which have frequency
data are related or not
Usage:
When both the variables ( X & Y) are categorical
(grouped)
Cramers Rule: To quantify the relationship between X &
Y
88
Error checking
and verification
Editing
coding
Data entry
Key Boarding
Data
Analysis
Descriptive
analysis
Bivariate
analysis
Univariate
analysis
Interpretation
Multivariate
analysis
89
Multivariate Analysis
The analysis of the simultaneous relationships
among several variables
Analyse the data covariance structure to
understand it or to reduce the data dimension
Assign observations to groups
Explore relationships
variables
among
categorical
90
Few Techniques Available
Multiple Linear Regression

Cluster Analysis
Factor Analysis
ANOVA
MANOVA
Conjoint Analysis
Optimisation Techniques .
91
Multiple Regression
To model output variable y in terms of two or
more variables
General Form:
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + - - - + bkXk
Two variable case:
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2
Adjusted R2
If Adj R2 > 0.6, then the model is reasonably good
P value from coefficient table
If p value < 0.05, the corresponding term has
strong relationship with output
92
Residual Plots: Error Analysis

Y = 44+0.19X1-2.55X2
93
Main Effects Plot - Data Means for Impurity
Main Effects Plot

Day
Shift
Time
0.038
Impurity
0.033
0.028
0.023
0.018
Evidence
Evidenceof
ofaastrong
strongShift
Shiftto
toShift
ShiftEffect
Effect
94
Validation Tests for Model

Adequacy
Mean Square Error (MSE) for checking Model

n
^ 2
Precision
MSE

i 1
Yi Yi
n2
Mean Bias (MB) for checking

Model Accuracy
n
MB
Y f ( X )
i 1
where, f(Xi)= ith model Prediction

95
Factor Analysis
Loading Plot of Pop, ..., Home
Home
0.75
School
Second Factor
0.50
0.25
Pop
0.00
Employ
-0.25
Health
-0.50
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
First Factor
0.6
0.8
1.0
Explain the presence of each variable with the sign (+ or -). This
way we can reduce the number of variables
96
Predictors Selection
97
P = 0.001
98
Classification Methods
Example:
x1
Attribute 2
x2
Label : y
y1 (Red) , y2 (Blue)
x2
Attribute 1
x2
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00
> 35
y1
< 28
x1
< 15.5
y2
y2
> 15.5
y1
x1
99
CLASSIFICATION METHODS
Example: Rules
Attribute 1
x1
Attribute 2
x2
Label : y
y1 (Red) , y2 (Blue)
If x2 > 35 then y = y1
If x2 < 28, then y = y2
If 28 > x2 > 35 & x1 > 15.5, then y = y1
x2
< 28
> 35
y1
x1
< 15.5
y2
y2
> 15.5
y1
If 28 > x2 > 35 & x1 < 15.5, then y = y2
100
Cluster Analysis
Objective
To classify the records or items into a smaller number of groups based
on the values of available attributes.
When to Use
When there is no Y attribute
All attributes are considered as Xs only
101
Weight in kg
Acceleration in m/s2
Acceleration in m/s2
K-Nearest Neighbors Cluster

Analysis
Weight in kg
102
ANOVA or Experimental Design

Sometimes, an investigator would like to compare
more than two population means in a problem
situation
ANOVA decomposes the
components of variation
total
variation
into
Population 1
Population 2
Population 3
103
MANOVA and Conjoint Analysis
MANOVA is similar to the ANOVA with added ability to

handle several dependent variables
The most common applications of conjoint analysis
are market research and product development for
making trade-offs
104
Optimisation Methods
Objective
To identify the best values of a set of variables
(Xs) which will optimize an objective function
satisfying a given set of constraints
For n variables in m constraints
Max / Min Z = C1x1 + C2x2 + .Cnxn
Subject to
a11 x1 + a12x2 + . + a1nxn < /> = b1
a21 x1 + a22x2 + . + a2nxn < /> = b2
am1 x1 + am2x2 + . + amnxn < /> = bm

And xi > 0, I = 1,2,.n
105
You never know what is enough

unless you know what is more than
enough
- William Blake
106
Session Summary (1/2)

Statistical Techniques and Tools:
Completely dependent on type of data used
(continuous or discrete)
Normal Distribution:
Describes many natural phenomena, industrial and
scientific situations. A normal curve is a graphical
representation to describe the normal distribution
Data Analysis is carried out in two distinct
environment:
Result of a special study or Experiment
By product of some operations or Observational
107
Session Summary (2/2)

Uni-variate Analysis:
The analysis of a single variable, for purposes of
description
(examples:
frequency
distribution,
averages, and measures of dispersion)
Bi-variate Analysis:
The analysis of two variables simultaneously for
determining the empirical relationship between
independent and dependent variables
Multi-variate Analysis:
The analysis of the simultaneous relationships among
several variables
108

Session - 6 Statistics and Data Analysis

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Session - 6 Statistics and Data Analysis

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Session 6

Suzuki Grand Vitara

The secret of success is to know

Turn Data into Insight

Explore relationships among the variables

Data Analysis (2/2)

Here we compare various condition and try to

Here we get data from steady state process and

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Classification of Data Analysis

Ambushed Every Where

Data analysis should be:

Key Components of a Data

Continuous Data: Example (Time spend per page visit (in

Continuous Data: Example (Time spend per visit (in

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Random Variables (Continued)

Suppose, the random variable X = 3 when any of the four

Random Variables (Continued)

P ro b a b ility Dis trib utio n o f S um o f Two Dic e

Generic Causes Of Variation

THE NORMAL CURVE

Center of the bar

Then the distribution is normal.

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Standard Normal Distribution

Samples and Populations

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Sampling Design within the Research

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

None of the Non-probability sampling

Sampling Distribution of the

Standard deviation of the sample mean =

M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences

Sample Size and Standard Error

Determining Sample Size

Determining Sample Size

If we know the precision (sampling error), the

Sample Size Determination

Sampling Error E = X , squaring both sides we get

Where Z is the value corresponding to the area of

Applying the formula n

n = ((2.58^2) * (500^2)) / (100^2) = 166.41

Sample Size Determination

Sampling Error E = (p-P), squaring both sides and

Where Z is the value corresponding to the area of

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods

Ordinal Scale - order matters

Interval Scale - difference or distance matters

Ratio Scale - Ratio matters has a natural

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Employees cooperation in teams___

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

Sample Rating Scales

The cure for boredom is curiosity ,