Komunikasi Data dan Jaringan

Komputer
(Bagian 1)

Dr. Tb. Maulana Kusuma

mkusuma@staff.gunadarma.ac.id
http://staffsite.gunadarma.ac.id/mkusuma

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 Referensi
W. Stallings, Data and Computer
Communications, 4ed, Macmillan, 1994.

F. Halsall, Data Communications,

Computer Networks and Open
Systems, Addison Wesley, 1996.

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 A Communications Model
Source
 generates data to be transmitted

Transmitter
 Converts data into transmittable signals

Transmission System
 Carries data

Receiver
 Converts received signal into data

Destination
 Takes incoming data

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Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram

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 Simplified Data
Communications Model

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 Key Communications Tasks
Transmission System Utilization
Interfacing
Signal Generation
Synchronization
Exchange Management
Error detection and correction
Addressing and routing
Recovery
Message formatting
Security
Network Management

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Communications Standard
Many types of connection media :
telephone lines, optical fibers,
cables, radios, etc.
Many different types of machines and
operating systems
Many different network applications

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 What “Standard” means?

How many volts pulse is a 0 and 1 ?

How to determine the end of a message ?
How to handle lost messages ?
How many bits for different data types ?
Integers/Strings, etc.; are ASCII chars ?
How machines are identified ?
How to find the way to reach a machine ?
How applications speaks together through the
network ?
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 Standard Bodies
International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
dll

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 The ISO/OSI Model
ISO (the International Standards Organization) has
developed a reference model for communications,
called the
OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection)

OPEN SYSTEM means that it can communicate with

any other system that follows the specified standards,
formats and semantics.

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 OSI Networking Model

Program X Data Program Y

Application AH Data Application

Presentation PH Data unit Presentation
Session SH Data unit Session
Transport TH Data unit Transport
Network NH Data unit Network
Data link LH Data unit LT Data link
Physical Bits Physical
Physical transmission medium

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 OSI Layers (1)
Physical
 Physical interface between devices

Mechanical
Electrical
Functional
Procedural
Data Link
 Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a

reliable link
 Error detection and control

 Higher layers may assume error free transmission

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 OSI Layers (2)
Network
 Transport of information
 Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology
 Not needed on direct links
Transport
 Exchange of data between end systems
 Error free
 In sequence
 No losses
 No duplicates
 Quality of service

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 OSI Layers (3)
Session
 Control of dialogues between applications

 Dialogue discipline

 Grouping

 Recovery

Presentation
 Data formats and coding

 Data compression

 Encryption

Application
 Means for applications to access OSI environment

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 Transmission Medium
Guided - wire
Unguided - wireless
Characteristics and quality determined by
medium and signal
For guided, the medium is more important
For unguided, the bandwidth produced by
the antenna is more important
Key concerns are data rate and distance
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 Guided Transmission Media
Twisted Pair
Coaxial cable
Optical fiber

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 Twisted Pair

Twisted pair - INEXPENSIVE

 Two wires twisted together.

Makes them less susceptible to acting like

an antenna and picking up radio frequency
information or appliance noise.
 Telephone company uses twisted-pair
copper wires to link telephones.

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Twisted Pair

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 Twisted Pair - Applications
Most common medium
Telephone network
 Between house and local exchange
(subscriber loop)
Within buildings
 To private branch exchange (PBX)
For local area networks (LAN)
 10Mbps or 100Mbps

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Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
Cheap
Easy to work with
Low data rate
Short range

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 Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
Analog
 Amplifiers every 5km to 6km

Digital
 Use either analog or digital signals

 repeater every 2km or 3km

Limited distance
Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
Limited data rate (100MHz)
Susceptible to interference and noise

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 Unshielded and Shielded TP
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Ordinary telephone wire

 Cheapest

 Easiest to install

 Suffers from external EM interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

 Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference

 More expensive

 Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

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 UTP Categories
Cat 3
 up to 16MHz

 Voice grade found in most offices

 Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm

Cat 4
 up to 20 MHz

Cat 5 or Cat 6
 up to 100MHz

 Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings

 Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm

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 Coaxial Cable (1)
Use this when
Coaxial cable 1. Long distances
 Also two wires: 2. Lots of interference
One of the wires is woven of fine strands of
copper forming a tube.
The wire mesh surrounds a solid copper wire
that runs down the center.
Space between has a non-conducting material.
Makes them more impervious to outside noise.

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Coaxial Cable (2)

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Coaxial Cable (3)

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 Coaxial Cable Applications
Most versatile medium
Television distribution
 Aerial to TV
 Cable TV
Long distance telephone transmission
 Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
 Being replaced by fiber optic
Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks
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Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
Analog
 Amplifiers every few km
 Closer if higher frequency
 Up to 500MHz
Digital
 Repeater every 1km
 Closer for higher data rates

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Optical Fiber (1)

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Optical Fiber (2)

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 Optical Fiber (3)

Fiber-optic cable
(BIG JOBS + EXPENSIVE)
 Light is electromagnetic.

 Can transmit more information down a single

strand.
It can send a wider set of frequencies.
 Each cable can send several thousand phone

conversations or computer communications.

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Optical Fiber - Spectrum

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 Optical Fiber - Benefits
Greater capacity
 Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
Smaller size & weight
Lower attenuation
Electromagnetic isolation
Greater repeater spacing
 10s of km at least

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 Optical Fiber - Applications
Long-haul trunks
Metropolitan trunks
Rural exchange trunks
Subscriber loops
LANs

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 Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
 Portions of infrared and visible spectrum

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 Cheaper

 Wider operating temp range

 Last longer

Injection Laser Diode (ILD)

 More efficient

 Greater data rate

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

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Optical Fiber Transmission
Modes

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 Wireless Transmission
Unguided media
Transmission and reception via antenna
Directional
 Focused beam
 Careful alignment required
Omni-directional
 Signal spreads in all directions
 Can be received by many antenna

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 Frequencies
2GHz to 40GHz
 Microwave

 Highly

directional
 Point to point

 Satellite

30MHz to 1GHz
 Omni-directional

 Broadcast radio

3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
 Infrared

 Local

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 Terrestrial Microwave
Parabolic dish
Focused beam
Line of sight
Long haul telecommunications
Higher frequencies give higher data rates

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 Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station
Satellite receives on one frequency, amplifies
or repeats signal and transmits on another
frequency
Requires geo-stationary orbit
 Height of ±35,784km
Television
Long distance telephone
Private business networks
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 Broadcast Radio
Omni-directional
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
Line of sight
Suffers from multi-path interference

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 Infrared
Modulate non-coherent infrared light
Line of sight (or reflection)
Blocked by walls
e.g. TV remote control, IRD port

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 Terminology (1)
Transmitter
Receiver
Medium
 Guided medium
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
 Unguided medium
e.g. air, water, vacuum

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 Terminology (2)
Direct link
 No intermediate devices
Point-to-point
 Direct link
 Only 2 devices share link
Multi-point
 More than two devices share the link

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 Terminology (3)
Simplex
 One direction
e.g. Television
Half duplex
 Either direction, but only one way at a time
e.g. police radio
Full duplex
 Both directions at the same time
e.g. telephone

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 Terminology (4)
Bits per second (bps).
 The number of bits (0’s and 1’s) that travel
down the channel per second.
Baud rate
 The number of bits that travel down the
channel in a given interval.
 The number is given in signal changes per
second, not necessarily bits per second.

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 Terminology (5)
Asynchronous transmission
 Information is sent byte by byte.
 Cheaper and more commonly used.
Synchronous transmission
 Data is sent in large blocks rather than in
small pieces.
 Preceded by special information, concerning
error detection and block size.
 These modems are expensive but very fast.

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 Analog and Digital Data
Transmission
Data
 Entities that convey meaning
Signals
 Electric or electromagnetic representations of
data
Transmission
 Communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals

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 Data
Analog
 Continuous values within some interval
 e.g. sound, video
Digital
 Discrete values
 e.g. text, integers

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 Data and Signals
Usually use digital signals for digital data
and analog signals for analog data
Can use analog signal to carry digital data
 Modem
Can use digital signal to carry analog data
 Compact Disc audio

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 Signals
Type of signal communicated (analog or digital).
 Analog: Those signals that vary with smooth continuous

changes.
A continuously changing signal similar to that found on
the speaker wires of a high-fidelity stereo system.
 Digital: Those signals that vary in steps or jumps from

value to value. They are usually in the form of pulses of

electrical energy (represent 0s or 1s).

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data

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 Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to
content
May be analog or digital data
Attenuated over distance
Use amplifiers to boost signal
Also amplifies noise

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 Digital Transmission
Concerned with content
Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
Repeaters used
Repeater receives signal
Extracts bit pattern
Retransmits
Attenuation is overcome
Noise is not amplified

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 Advantages of Digital
Transmission
Digital technology
 Low cost LSI/VLSI technology

Data integrity
 Longer distances over lower quality lines

Capacity utilization
 High bandwidth links economical

 High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques

Security & Privacy

 Encryption

Integration
 Can treat analog and digital data similarly

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 Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted
Analog - degradation of signal quality
Digital - bit errors
Caused by
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 Propagation delay
 Noise
 Interference
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 Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance
Depends on medium
Received signal strength:
 must be enough to be detected
 must be sufficiently higher than noise to be
received without error
Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency

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 Propagation Delay
The time required for a signal to travel
from one point to another.
Propagation velocity varies with frequency.

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 Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between
transmitter and receiver
Thermal
 Due to thermal agitation of electrons
 White noise
Inter-modulation
 Signals that are the sum and difference of
original frequencies sharing a medium

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 Noise (2)
Crosstalk
 A signal from one line is picked up by another
Impulse
 Irregular pulses or spikes
 e.g. External electromagnetic interference
 Short duration
 High amplitude

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 Channel Capacity
Data rate
 In bits per second
 Rate at which data can be communicated
Bandwidth
 In cycles per second of Hertz
 Constrained by transmitter and medium

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Modulation Techniques

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Adaptive Modulation

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 Data Rate and Bandwidth
Any transmission system has a limited
band of frequencies
This limits the data rate that can be carried

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Multiplexing

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 Time Division Multiplexing
Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of
digital signal to be transmitted
Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
May be at bit level of blocks
Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
Time slots allocated even if no data
Time slots do not have to be evenly
distributed amongst sources
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Time Division Multiplexing

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TDM System

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Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM
Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
e.g. broadcast radio
Channel allocated even if no data
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Frequency Division Multiplexing
Diagram

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FDM System

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