Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ahindra Ghosh and Amit Chatterjee: Ironmaking and Steelmaking Theory and Practice, PrenticeHall of India Private Limited, 2008
Anil K. Biswas: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking, SBA Publication,1999
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Iron Making, Khanna Publishers.
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Steel Making, Khanna Publishers.
David H. Wakelin (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Ironmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
Richard J.Fruehan (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Steeelmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
A.Ghosh, Secondary Steel Making Principle & Applications, CRC Press 2001.
R.G.Ward: Physical Chemistry of iron & steel making, ELBS and Edward Arnold, 1962.
F.P.Edneral: Electrometallurgy of Steel and Ferro-Alloys, Vol.1 Mir Publishers,1979
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan,: "Kinetics of the Reaction of SiO(g) with Carbon Saturated Iron":
Metall. Trans. B, Vol. 16B, 1985, p. 121.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan: "The Reaction of SiO(g) with Liquid Slags, Metall. Trans.B,
Volume 17B, 1986, p. 397.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan:.Transfer of Silicon in Blast Furnace": , Proceedings of the fifth
International Iron and Steel Congress, Washington D.C., 1986, p. 959.
P. F. Nogueira and R. J. Fruehan: Blast Furnace Softening and Melting Phenomena - Melting
Onset in Acid and Basic Pellets", , ISS-AIME lronmaking Conference, 2002, pp. 585.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
B.F.
This
The
0.8-0.6t
0.5-0.6t
1.7-1.8t
3200m3
+
80kg dust
Fuel
Reducing agent supply
Permeable bed
(spacer)
2500 m3
0.6t
1t
7
10
11
12
13
14
Al2O3
20.45%
CaO
32.23%
SiO2
33.02%
MgO
9.95%
S
0.89%
MnO
0.54%
TiO2
1.01%
FeO
0.41%
K2O+Na20 1%
Trace Oxides 0.5%
16
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
17
18
cont
19
20
21
22
23
24
V =k D2H
V=Useful volume
H=Total height
D=Diameter at the bottom of the shaft
K=A coefficient usually lies with in the range of 0.47
to 0.53. High value is for slim profile.
25
26
27
Diameter:
The belly /bosh parallel is the cylinder that
connects the tapers of the shaft and the bosh.
Its diameter, dbll, and the ratio of this diameter to
the useful or inner height of the furnace as well
as to the diameter of the hearth play an
important role in the operation of the furnace.
The correct descent of the stock, ascent of the
gas and efficient utilization of the chemical and
thermal energies of the gas depend greatly upon
these ratios.
28
29
30
31
32
34
36
The
37
38
Cont..
39
Throat
40
41
42
43
Capacity
2000
3000
5000
1700
2550
4250
33.08
36.46
41.22
29.11
32.08
36.27
9.96
11.62
14.11
2.32
2.55
2.89
4.37
4.81
5.44
9.1
10.92
13.74
65.04
93.66
148.27
3.308
3.646
4.122
17.64
19.77
22.77
6.87
7.85
9.29
84.32
85.84
88.05
85
84.55
83.96
Nos. of Tuyeres
20
25
34
(THM/Day)
Parameter
45
46
48
49
50
As has been made clear that even the most efficient of the
modern blast furnace would produce an effluent gas containing a
significant proportion of CO which could not be used for iron
oxide reduction. The actual CO content may vary around 20-30%
by volume. This has a calorific value of nearly 900 kcal/m 3. The
quantity of gas produced depends upon the amount of fuel burnt.
For one tonne of coke burnt nearly 4000 m 3 of effluent gas may
be produced. Hence a blast furnace requiring 1000 t of coke per
day would generate nearly 4 x 106 m3 of gas with a total energy
content of 3600 x 106 kcal which is nearly equivalent to 500 t of
coke.
51
52
The average dust content may vary in the range of 7-30 g/m3. In general
cleaning is carried out in three stages viz. coarse, semi-fine and fine
cleaning. The coarse cleaning is done in dust catchers and cyclones in
dry condition. The dust content of the coarse cleaned gas is nearly 5-10 g/m3.
The semi-fine cleaning is carried out in scrubbers, ventury washers,
cyclone separators, centrifugal disintegrators, feld washers or even in
electrostatic precipitators. The dust content is thereby reduced to 05-15
g/m3. Fine cleaning is carried out mainly by electrostatic precipitators or at
times by high speed rotary disintegrators, The dust content is thereby
reduced down to 0.01 g/m3 The semi-fine and fine cleaning is carried out
either in wet or dry condition. Wet methods are generally preferred to dry
methods for their better efficiency and smooth working.
53
54
Two adjacent uptakes are joined together to form one single duct
and the two such ducts, thus formed, are connected to form only
one duct which carries the gas downwards into the dust catcher.
The downcoming pipe or duct is called downcomer.
The uptakes and the downcomers are steel pipes and are lined
from inside with firebricks. The sizes of the uptakes and
downcomers and the angle of their joints are such that gas flows out
of the furnace smoothly without any hindrance.
55
56
57
58
60
61
63
64
65
0.8-0.6t
0.5-0.6t
1.7-1.8t
3200m3
+
80kg dust
Fuel
Reducing agent supply
Permeable bed
(spacer)
2500 m3
0.6t
1t
66
67
68
69
Treatment
71
Cold strength
Porosity
Decrepitation
Low-temperature breakdown under reducing
conditions (LTB)
Hot compression strength
Softening temperature and range
Swelling and volume change
High-temperature bed permeability under
compressive load and reducing conditions.
72
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
83
84
Lump ores, sinter and pellets disintegrate into smaller pieces during their
downward travel through the blast furnace owing to the weight of the
overlying burden, as well as abrasion and impact between the burden
materials.
It has been found that this tendency gets aggravated when the oxides are in
a reduced state. Reduction of hematite into magnetite occurs in the upper
stack at 500-600C, and this is accompanied by volume expansion even to
the extent of 25%.
This results in compressive stresses being developed and contributes
significantly to breakdown of the iron oxides.
Blast furnace operators prefer a low RDI (below 28 or so) since the adverse
effect of high RDI has been clearly demonstrated in practice.
85
86
87
Where
n0 = number of moles of oxygen originally combined with iron only;
n = number of moles of oxygen left combined with iron after experi
mental time, t.
88
89
90
particle size
porosity
crystal structure
pore size
volume change
impurities
93
Reduction of natural hematite ores by CO or H2 starts between 2005000C, depending upon the physical characteristics and
mineralogical composition. However, the rate below 5000C is
sluggish.
Hematite is more reducible than magnetite although the amount of
oxygen to be removed per unit weight of iron is about 12 percent
higher in the former.
The better reducibility of hematite may be due to:
94
96
97
98
99
10
0
10
1
This has a great significance in the blast furnace process where about
30-40 percent of the coke carbon is oxidised to CO2 and the rest into
CO.
Although a part of this heat is redeemed by burning the gas out of the
furnace, it means conversion of expensive metallurgical coke to a gas
which could be obtained from a less valuable fuel.
10
2
The heat values in the given equations are for pure carbon. For
a good quality coke with 86% C, the respective values will be
about 2000 and 7000 kcal/kg.coke.
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Chemical Influence
It is well known that the reduction rate of wustite is critical in the
overall kinetics of iron oxide reduction.
The equilibrium partial pressure or concentration of CO2 would
decrease if aFeO is lowered by solution and/or compound
formation. Hence, the reduction rate would also decrease.
10
8
Natural ores can contain iron oxides as compounds with gang materials, such as,
2FeO.Si02, FeO.AI203, FeO.Cr203, FeO.TiO2 etc where wustite exists in a state of low
activity. The activity of wustite can also decrease when it undergoes sintering with the
impurities present, such as SiO2, Al2O3 etc.
10
9
11
0
11
1
For the reduction of iron ores the reducing gas has to diffuse
into the interior of the body where transformations can occur.
In general, the reduction rate increases with temperature but
the degree depends upon the mechanism of the reaction .
The overall reduction rate depends upon the relative
contributions of chemical control and gaseous mass
transport and hence depends upon the particular reactions
occurring and the reaction temperature. Since chemical
reaction has higher activation energy than gaseous diffusion,
the former will increase at a much greater rate with increase
in temperature than the latter.
11
2
Hence, a stage will arrive where diffusion will become ratecontrolling. Depending upon the degree of reduction, at lower
temperatures of about 500-600C, the chemical reaction
rate controls the reduction rate forming what is known as
the kinetic region in the blast furnace. At temperatures
above 600C, gaseous diffusion becomes the dominant
rate controlling mechanism. The temperature regime in the
blast furnace shaft is such that it can be assumed a zone of
mixed-control exists.
11
3
Reactions
lower temperatures.
The
11
4
11
5
11
6
Natural COAL is too dense and fragile to be used in the modern BF.
(a) The blast will not be able to penetrate it quickly for burning.
(b) It is not strong enough to stand nearly 25 m high burden lying over
it.
(c) The volatiles present will be released in the BF
However, we need C for giving heat and to reduce iron ore into
iron metal
Yes, fortunately certain coals when heated out of contact with air
result in a carbonaceous mass, which is strong, porous, volatile free,
just suitable for use in BF.
This carbonaceous mass is called COKE and this coal is called
METALLURGICAL COAL or COKING COAL.
11
7
Fields
quality
Prime
Coking
Jharia
(IX seam & above)
garh, Raniganj
Raniganj, Jha-
weakly
ria, Jhilimili-
Coking
Sonhat
Total
Gross
Net Reserve
Reserve (Mt)
(Mt)
5288
2312
20388
2752
2067
47728
27733
5569
11
8
%
F.C.
% H2
Prime coking
88-91
86-88
%
V.M.
Cal.
Value
Kcal/kg
Moist
ure
4.8-5.2 23-32
8800
8600
1-2
90-91
5.1-5.4 22 max
4.7-4.9 22-32
8800
1-2
Semi-coking
83-85
5.4-5.8 37-44
8300
2-3
Weakly coking
83-84
5.1-5.6 38-46
8300
3-5
11
9
FUNCTIONS OF COKE
Coke fulfils the following major roles in a BF:
1. It is a fuel provides heat for endothermic chemical reactions and
2.
3.
4.
5.
12
0
QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
OF COKE
Coke must possess the following properties:
1. Proper chemical composition w.r.t. Fixed Carbon, ash, S, P etc.
2.
3.
4.
5.
12
1
QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
OF COKE
Value of coke is assessed in terms of its:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
12
2
Requirements
Grade I of Grade II
Grade III
20
24
28
V.M. (max)
0.70
0.70
0.70
P
Shatter Index:
0.30
0.30
Over 38 mm (% max)
85
0.30
-
Over 13 mm (%max)
97
85
97
Micum Index:
75
14
over 40 mm (% min)
75
Through 10 mm (% max0
Stability factor:
14
On 25 mm (% min)
40
40
Porosity, %
35-48
35-48
12
3
MODIFICATIONS IN COKE
MAKING PRACTICE
The modifications include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pre-heating.
Briquette blending.
Stamp charging.
Admixing oil in the charge.
Admixing water in the charge.
Using a better coal blend.
12
4
COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF
SOME PARAMETERS
Parameters
Conventi
onal
Charging
Briquette
.
blending
Binder-
Preheating
Stamp
charging
800850
11001200
8-9
5.5-6.5
45-50
60-65
105-110
110115
112115
100-105
150175
110115
less briquetting
Bulk Density of
coal charge(kg/m2)
M 10 of coke
10-11
CSR of coke
30-40
Oven throughput I
100
8.5-9.5
35-45
9-9.5
35-45
105-110
Maintenance
requirement index
100
105
12
5
12
6
12
7
Coke size: Coke comprises about 50-60 percent of the volume of the
charge material. The coke size is important as it provides
permeability in the dry as well as in the wet bosh zone The coke size
is always 3-4 times larger than the ore size, since coke is partially
burnt as it descends. It also has a lower density, and hence a greater
tendency for fluidisation. Of course, in the lower bosh region of a
blast furnace, coke is the only solid that remains, and which helps to
support the burden. The optimum size range for lump ore is 10-30
mm and for coke is 40-80 mm. Since the coke size becomes
smaller as it descends through the blast furnace due to mechanical
breakdown, gasification, attrition, etc., the factor of prime importance
is the strength of coke.
12
8
12
9
soaking time;
Ash and moisture content in coke. Low moisture & ash content
are desirable in metallurgical coke.
Low moisture in coke can be achieved by suitable control of the
water supply during quenching. That is why dry quenching using
inert gas has been suggested but dry coke is dusty and can create
handling nuisance. Metallurgical coke should contain < 1.5%
moisture. Each additional 1% H20 in blast furnace coke
increases fuel consumption by 1.2%.
Maximum desirable ash in metallurgical coke is 8-10%. Each
additional 1% ash in blast furnace coke increases fuel consumption
by 2%. In addition, high ash content becomes very undesirable, if it
causes trouble in fusion. Also, volume of slag produced in blast
furnace becomes more with the use of high ash coke resulting in
reduction of the useful volume of the blast furnace and hence
production of pig iron from blast furnace is reduced. High ash coke
has high resistance to abrasion and has high strength.
13
1
Density & Porosity. The more completely the coal is devolatalised, the
more closely the density of coke approach that of the graphite (i.e. 2.3).
Coking follows formation of a porous structure which increases in
density by shrinkage during further heating at a high temperature. Since
all cokes contain traces of hydrogen and mineral matter of the coal, its
absolute density never reaches that of graphite. The higher the rank of
the coal, the higher is the density of coke made (Varies from 1. 7 to 1.95
for C% in coal from 81 to 89%).
With increase in time and temperature of carbonization (with faster
heating rate) the density of the coke increases while the porosity
decreases. Denser coke are stronger and harder. An important property
of coke for its storage and transport is its bulk density.
High porosity is desirable in furnace cokes to obtain high rates of
combustion.
In blast furnace, high strength is considered more important
because coke has to be dropped in the blast furnace from a great height
and it should not break before reaching the hearth for better
performance and reducibility in the furnace.
13
2
13
3
13
4
High M40 and low M10 values are desirable for metallurgical coke. As
per ISI minimum M40 index should be 75% and maximum M10 index should
be 14% for metallurgical coke.
For use in 2000 m3 volume blast furnace, coke M40 should be more
than 78 and M10 should be less .than 10.
13
5
More reactive cokes have higher thermal values of their volatile matter.
Coke of high reactivity ignites easily and gives rapid pick up of fuel bed
temperature. However, low reactivity coke gives a higher fuel bed
temperature than a highly reactive coke
13
7
13
8
13
9
14
1
14
3
14
4
14
5
Original mineral which has not undergone any chemical or physical change during
sintering.
14
7
14
8
15
0
Bed permeability
Total volume of air blast drawn through the bed
15
1
During sintering, heat exchange takes place between the solid charge
and air drawn. At any time, the air takes the heat from combustion zone
and then transfers to the lower layer of the bed. For faster rate of heat
exchange, the volume of air drawn should be more. If suction rate of
air is too high, transfer of heat may become less efficient. On the other
hand, the flame front will not move down the bed properly if suction is
less. Higher the bed permeability, more will be the air drawn. But,
higher permeability leads to loss of strength in the resulting sinter due
to reduction in bond strength. Hence a compromise is made between
these two factors. It is usual practice to draw about 700 1100 m 3 of
air/ton of charge.
15
2
Higher proportion of 100 mesh size fines adversely affects the bed
permeability. Better is that 100 mesh size fraction should be
screened off and used for pelletization. Ideal size of iron ore for
sintering is 0.07 10 mm.
15
3
15
4
15
5
Feed preparation.
(a) Drying
(b) Pre-heating
(c) Firing
15
6
The ease with which material can be rolled into balls is almost
directly proportional to the surface area of particles, i.e. its fineness.
15
7
15
8
15
9
From fundamental studies it has been concluded that there are three
different water-particle systems:
The pendular state, when water is present just at the point of contact of
the particles and surface tension holds the particles together.
The funnicular state, when some pores are fully occupied by water in
an aggregate system.
The capillary state, when all the pores are filled with water but there is
no coherent film covering the entire surface of the particles.
16
0
16
1
Transition region
16
2
16
3
16
4
16
5
16
6
Growth by Assimilation
If no fresh feed material is added for balling the rolling action may break
some of the granules, particularly the small ones, and the material
coalesces with those which grow. The bigger the ball the larger it will grow
under these conditions. Since smaller granules are weaker they are the first
victim and growth of the bigger balls takes place at their expense.
Growth by Layering
Growth of the seeds is said to be taking place by layering when the balls
pick up material while rolling on a layer of fresh feed, The amount of
material picked up by the balls is directly proportional to its exposed
surface, i.e. the increase in the size of the balls is independent of their
actual size.
Growth by layering is more predominant in the disc pelletisers and
growth by assimilation is more predominant in drum pelletisers, at
least beyond the feed zone.
16
7
16
8
16
9
More accessible surface per unit weight and more iron per unit of furnace volume
because of high bulk density, 3-3.5 tonnes/m3 .Larger surface and increased time
of residence per unit weight of iron give better and longer gas/solid contact and
improved heat exchange;
Degradation of sinter during its transit is much more than that of pellets. The
sinter therefore has to be produced nearby the blast furnace plant while pellets
can be carried over a long distance without appreciable degradation. Ease in
handling
o
o
17
1
The life of lining, under the conditions prevailing inside the furnace, decides the
furnace campaign which should not be less than a few years. The chief causes of
failure of the lining are:
Temperature.
Blowing-in procedure.
17
2
17
3
If the bricks are porous, carbon penetration takes place, causing the
bricks to disintegrate.
17
4
Rigby and Green, however, state that the total iron oxide content of
the firebrick is no criterion of the resistance of the material to carbon
monoxide attack, as the ease with which the iron nodules can be
reduced to metallic iron appears to be the determining factor. This
view is supported by many authorities.
17
5
It will also be obvious that carbon monoxide attack will be reduced by the use
of a dense brick of low permeability.
17
6
. The blast furnace burden consists of small amounts of alkalis and some
cyanogen is generated by the interaction of nitrogen and carbon. These alkalis
and cyanides are volatilized in the hotter parts of the furnace, and tend to collect
in the cooler places.
Kraner shows that the alkalis react with the brickwork forming nephelite (Na20 .
Al203 2Si02), whilst Rigby, Booth and Green quote microscopic examinations of
brickwork taken from furnace linings 20 ft. down the stack, which shows the
formation of kaliophilite (K20. A1203 2Si02) and leucite (K20. AI20a 4Si02).
Green and Hugill state that experience demonstrates that these vapours,
particularly cyanide vapours, can lead to general corrosion and modification
of the surface of the lining with consequent loss of strength and
refractoriness.
17
7
. The action of blast furnace slag on the refractory lining is a function of the
basicity of the slag. Since the ash of the coke is not released until the coke
is burnt in the tuyere zone, it follows that the CaO/Si02 ratio must be high in
the bosh. Therefore there will be a tendency for these high-lime slags to
attack the brickwork.
. There are other volatile materials, such as zinc and lead, which may be
included in the blast furnace burden. These metals volatilize in the hotter
zones and condense in the pores of the brickwork in the cooler parts. Their
subsequent oxidation causes a swelling of the brick, which results in
disintegration.
17
8
17
9
Unless great care is taken and patience shown during the drying of
the lining and the blowing in of the furnace, considerable damage
may be done to the lining. The importance of drying the lining
course by course as it is built is now appreciated.
18
0
The lining here should have a very good abrasion resistance and
resistance to carbon monoxide attack; refractoriness is relatively of
less significance. A good dense refractory is ideal for this purpose.
..
18
1
The entire stack below the top few metres of height is lined with high
duty firebricks. A 35-40% Al203 firebrick with a close texture is
usually preferred for the stack,
A 60% Al203 brick have been recommended for the lower parts of the
stack.
18
2
18
3
The extremely successful use of carbon blocks for lining the hearth and its
walls led to its adoption even in the bosh region since carbon refractory
possesses better properties, especially high thermal conductivity, than those
of the conventional high duty firebricks.
Carbon lined walls can be cooled by either spray coolers, or water jackets.
The changeover from firebrick lining to carbon lining, therefore, eliminates
the corrugated pattern of construction produced by rows of coolers inserted
in the lining and permits simpler construction which also results in smoother
and uniform wear.
18
5
18
6
In the early adaptation carbon blocks were used as only the facing
lining with high duty firebrick for backing. However all carbon hearth
i.e. the whole wall thickness and a considerable bottom thickness,
has almost universally been accepted as a standard method of
preparing the hearth: the remaining bottom thickness is made up by
high duty firebricks. The shape and size of the carbon blocks used
for making the bottom vary considerably but all aim at achieving
keyed joint with thinnest possible joints, preferably without the use
of external jointing material.
18
7
18
8
18
9
19
0
At the end of drying, depending upon the method used for drying,
the furnace is cleared off all the things used for filling. The coolers
are turned on and once the inside temperature is tolerable furnace
personnel can get in and prepare for filling the furnace. The
inspection of coolers at this stage is a must since rectification of
faulty coolers is readily possible at this stage. In fact a check list is
prepared and each item is checked off as reports are received of
their satisfactory performance.. The tap holes are prepared and
coolers, which were earlier removed to have access inside, are
packed in position.
19
1
Filling of the furnace usually means filling the hearth with light kindling wood
and shavings saturated with oil up to the tuyere level and laying over this a
scaffold of old timber slippers. Coke is charged above the timber scaffold
from the top upto the bosh level. A quantity of limestone sufficient to flux the
ash in the charged coke, is also charged along with the coke after the initial
coke blanks. A small amount of old blast furnace slag is also incorporated
with coke after the coke level rises beyond the mantle level. The early slag
volume is deliberately maintained at high level to heat up the hearth and
prepare it to receive iron. On the coke blanks are laid light burden charges
of ore, stone and coke i.e. the ratio of iron ore to coke is low, about 05-06.
19
2
After filling the furnace as mentioned above for blowing-in the bells are opened and the
dust catcher dump valve is closed..
The furnace is lighted either by inserting red-hot bars through the tuyeres or slag hole and
iron notch. Alternatively gas torch may also be used. Generally highly combustible material
is kept in front of the tuyeres during filling to light the furnace readily. Burning is allowed
with natural draught alone for the first 2436 hours; a light blast is put on only thereafter.
As soon as good amount of gas emerges from the furnace top the bells are closed and the
dust catcher dump valve is slowly opened to conduct exit gases through the gas cleaning
system.
The blast volume is fairly rapidly increased to normal volume of blowing. Usually more than
three fourth of the standard volume of blast is blown by the end of fourth day and full blast
is on by the end of a week after the furnace is ignited.
19
3
Tap holes are kept open for hot gases to escape out during the early period. Once
coke burning and slag formation starts furnace crew are vigilant in observing the
tap holes. The first indication of a sudden decrease in the out coming gas through
the tap hole is taken as an indication of beginning of slag accumulation in the
hearth and the tap hole is immediately closed thereafter. Nearly six to eight hours
may elapse after this before sufficient slag has accumulated to warrant flushing.
After nearly two days, as the ratio of iron ore to increase in the burden, that first
cast may be due. The amount of slag and metal flowing out of the furnace is
correlated to the charge schedule and proportion in order to assess the progress
of blowing-in operation. After the first cast is over charging and tapping schedules
are established and are strictly adhered to until routine production is established. It
generally takes nearly a week to establish normal routine practice so that metal
and slag of desired composition will be tapped out of furnace at the desired
intervals.
19
4
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
19
5
19
6
In a typical Indian blast furnace equipped with a bellless (Paul Wurth) distribution system, the decrease
in coke rate that is due exclusively to burden
distribution was found to be 1012 kg/thm.
19
7
Additional mechanical
constant).
better distribution.
19
8
Inconsistency in
physical properties of
charge materials
(deficiencies caused by
this should be
eliminated by improving
quality of the burden.
Density of charge
materials.
19
9
Level,
system and
sequence of
charging, programme
of revolving the
distributor (conditions
determining major
means of blast
furnace process
control from top).
Distribution
of charge
on the big bell
Height of the big bell
from the stock-line i.e.
charge level in the
furnace throat.
Order and proportion
of charging of various
raw materials.
20
0
20
1
20
3
20
4
The density of three important raw materials viz. the ore, the
coke and the limestone are quite different.
The heaviest is iron ore with around 5-6 glcc, the lightest is
coke with density of around 15 glcc and the limestone is
intermediate with-a value of density around 30-35 glcc.
20
5
20
6
When
20
7
For
20
8
The higher is the angle of repose the more it has the tendency to
form ridges on charging in a blast furnace.
The more dried is the ore and the more it is free from fines the
less pronounced is the angle of repose and thus less is the
tendency towards segregation.
The clayey ores tend to form ridges because of their high angle
of repose. The effective way to reduce the angle of repose of any
iron ore is to eliminate the fines, dry the ore if wet and to wash
off clay, if any, adhering the ore.
20
9
21
0
21
1
21
2
On
21
3
21
4
21
5
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
21
6
21
7
Right at the top of the furnace is the granular zone that contains
the coke and the iron bearing materials charged, sometimes
along with small quantities of limestone and other fluxes. The
iron-bearing oxides charged get reduced to wustite and metallic
iron towards the lower end of the granular zone.
21
8
21
9
Also the solid phase gets deformed due to the weight of the
burden.
This deformed solid may occupy the gaps between the solid
ferrous pieces also causing loss of permeability.
The different phenomena simultaneously occuring in the
cohesive zone are
a. softening and melting of the oxide phase.
b. carburisation of the metalic phase
c. softening and melting of the metallic iron phases
Softening and melting of the oxide phase will be affected by :
a. the quantity of non ferrous oxide ( slag formers) present
b. distribution, morphology and chemistry of slag formers
c. degree of pre reduction (this will affect the availability of
FeO as a slag former).
22
0
the
22
1
22
2
22
3
22
5
Further down the furnace, impure liquid iron and liquid slag are
formed. The absorption of carbon lowers the melting point of iron
drastically. For example, an iron alloy containing 4 wt. % carbon
melts at only 1185C..
In the cohesive zone and below it, coke is the source of carbon for
carburisation of liquid iron. However, carbon directly does not
dissolve in liquid iron at this stage. The possible mechanism of
carburisation of iron entails the formation of CO by gasification of
carbon, followed by the absorption of carbon by the reaction:
Coke is the only material of the blast furnace charge which descends to
the tuyere level in the solid state. It burns with air in front of the tuyeres
in a 1-2 m deep raceway around the hearth periphery.
Beyond the raceway there is a closely packed bed of coke, the central
coke column or dead man's zone.
22
7
The raceway is a vital part of the blast furnace since it is the heat
source in a gigantic reactor and at the same time a source of
reducing gas.
The salient features of Combustion zone are summarized below:
The force of the blast forms a cavity the roof of which is formed of
loosely packed or suspended coke lumps and the wall more closely
packed.
22
8
22
9
23
0
The primary slag of relatively low melting point which forms in the lower part
of the stack or in the belly consists of FeO-containing silicate and
aluminates with varying amounts of lime which has become incorporated
depending upon the degree of calcination undergone .
As the slag descends, ferrous oxide is rapidly reduced by carbon as well as
.
23
1
As the liquid primary slag runs down the bosh and loses its fluxing
constituent FeO, the liquidus temperature also increases. If, therefore,
the slag has to remain liquid it must move down to hotter parts of the
furnace as rapidly as its melting point is raised. As the reduction of FeO
is almost complete above the tuyeres the resulting bosh slag, composed
mainly of CaO-Si02-AI203
The hearth slag is formed on dissolution of the lime which was not
incorporated in the bosh and on absorption of the coke ash released
during combustion. The formation is more or less complete in the
combustion zone.
23
2
This slag runs along with the molten iron into the hearth
and accumulates there and forms a pool with the molten
metal underneath. During the passage of iron droplets
through the slag layer, the slag reacts with the metal and
a transference of mainly Si, Mn and S occurs from or to
the metal, tending to attain equilibrium between
themselves as far as possible.
23
3
23
4
0.81
23
5
23
6
23
7
23
8
23
9
The different phases of iron oxides in equilibrium with H2/H2O mixtures at various
temperatures are shown in previous fig. by the dotted lines. The reduction of
FeO by H2 is endothermic and therefore the curve inclines downwards with
increasing temperature whereas the corresponding curve for reduction by CO
(full line) inclines upwards because of the exothermic nature of the reaction.
These two curves intersect at about 821C, i.e., at 821C hydrogen and CO
have the same reducing power over FeO. Thermodynamically, below this
temperature, the reducing power of CO is much greater.
24
0
The curve for Eq. (iii) slopes upwards because the reaction is
exothermic, i.e., FeO becomes more stable with increasing
temperature in the presence of CO.
The curve for Eq. (ii) slopes downwards the reaction being
endothermic.
24
2
24
3
Below 600C :
Pre-heating and pre-reduction
600 -950C:
Indirect reduction of iron oxides by CO and H2
24
4
24
5
Blast, injectants and coke are converted to hot reducing gas. This
gas reduces the ore as it moves counter currently towards the top of
the furnace.
Hearth
24
6
24
7
24
8
24
9
The charge in the blast furnace descends under gravity against the
frictional forces of solids and buoyancy of gas. With increasing gas
velocity, the pressure drop increases approximately quadratically
until the upward thrust of the gas and downward thrust of the solids
are held in balance.
25
0
25
1
25
2
The
25
3
25
4
where
26
1
26
2
26
3
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
26
4
26
5
Decreasing
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
26
7
26
8
26
9
High basicity
Kinetic factor
Contact surface of metal and slag ( by agitation)
Fluidity of slag( by adding MgO , MnO)
Time of desulphurisation
27
0
27
1
27
2
27
3
27
4
27
5
27
6
27
7
This has a great significance in the blast furnace process where about
30-40 percent of the coke carbon is oxidised to CO2 and the rest into
CO.
Although a part of this heat is redeemed by burning the gas out of the
furnace, it means conversion of expensive metallurgical coke to a gas
which could be obtained from a less valuable fuel.
27
8
The heat values in the given equations are for pure carbon. For
a good quality coke with 86% C, the respective values will be
about 2000 and 7000 kcal/kg.coke.
27
9
28
0
28
1
28
2
28
3
CO2
emission
Industry
Power
Transport
Steel
other
Contribution %
51
16
10
23
28
4
28
5
Advantages:
For the same volume flow rate, a greater mass of air
(hence, oxygen) can be blown with HTP; higher output;
28
6
28
8
28
9
29
0
29
1
29
3
29
4
29
5
29
6
H20 + C = CO + H2 (1)
HO (1200C) = + 2700 kcal/kg C
29
7
29
8
29
9
30
0
30
1
30
2
30
4
The coke savings from fluxed burden emanate from the following
causes :
better reducibility and enhanced indirect reduction (6-7 kg.C saved from
every 1 percent increase in indirect reduction);
30
5
30
7
30
8
30
9
Coal-based Processes
Coal-based Rotary Kiln Processes like SL/RN
Codir, Accar, TDR, DRC
Coal-based Processes Using Rotary Hearth Furnaces
like FASTMET, COMET, INMETCO
Gas-based Processes
Gas-based Reduction in Stationary Retorts HYLProcess
Gas-based Shaft Furnace Processes: Midrex
Gas-based Direct Reduction in Fluidised Beds: Finmet
31
0
31
1
31
2
This is also a counter current process to the extent that solid oxide
travels downwards and the gases formed on burning of coal ascend
with respect to the inclination of the kiln or the shaft reactor.
31
3
The throughput rate of solid iron oxide, its reducibility, its size,
gangue contents, the rotation of kiln and other related factors are
adjusted such that the oxide is reduced to the extent of 93-95% by
the time it travels the whole length of the kiln. This reduction is slow
and continuous and takes place over the length of the kiln. In this
process the iron oxide gets heated to a maximum of 1050C.
31
4
The gas-based shaft furnace processes, which have become by far the
most popular for the production of sponge iron, employ a vertical shaft
furnace in which, as in the case of a blast furnace, lump ore and pellets
are charged at the top using a charging system similar to a blast furnace.
Reformed natural gas after pre-heating is introduced in the lower portion
of the shaft. As the hot reducing gas flows upwards, reduction takes
place continuously. Hence, these processes are often referred to as
continuous countercurrent moving bed processes. In this category, the
Midrex process is dominant, followed by HYL III and HYL IV.
31
5
The iron oxide feed to a Midrex shaft can be in the form of pellets or
lump ore However, generally speaking, the charge consists of around
60% pellets and 40% lump ore of a particular type. Pellets are the
preferred feedstock owing to their superior physicochemical
characteristics compared with lump ores.,
31
6
31
7
The spent reducing gas (or top gas) leaving the shaft furnace at a
temperature of 400-450C is cooled and cleaned in a gas scrubber
before approximately 60% of the gas is returned to the reformer; and
the rest used as a fuel. The process gas is compressed and preheated before entering the reformer at around 900C, where it is
mixed with make-up natural gas. The reformed gas made up mostly of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen exits from the reformer at about
850C. The ratio of H2 to CO is controlled at about 1.5-1.8, so that
the reducing quality of the gas is maintained for best operations. The
iron oxide burden is first heated to the process temperature before it is
metallised by the upward flowing, countercurrent reducing gas
injected at 800-870C through tuyeres located at the bottom of the
cylindrical section of the shaft.
31
8
31
9
32
0
32
2
32
3
32
4
32
5
This gives rise to far higher transport rates owing to convection, and
a remarkable increase in the conversion rate because of
enlargement in the specific phase contact area. The latter is a direct
consequence of the. dispersed nature of the phases. These two
major advantages of SR accrue because of the formation of liquid
phases, which does not happen in DR.
32
6
32
7
32
8
The reducing gas containing nearly 85% CO is hot dedusted and cooled
to 800-900C before leading it into the pre-reducer. The process is
designed to operate at up to 5 bars.
Fluxes like limestone, dolomite, silica sand, etc. are added along with the
ore to finally make up the right quality of slag.
The export gas generated in the melting zone is rich and may have
calorific value of around 7500 kJ/Nm3 and can be used in the plant
usefully
33
0
33
1
33
2
The fine DRI is compacted and then charged in the form of Hot
Compacted Iron (HCI) into the melter gasifier. So, before charging
to the melter- gasifier unit of the FINEX unit, this material is
compacted in a hot briquetting press to give hot compacted iron
(HCI)
since the melter- gasifier can not use fine material (to ensure
permeability in the bed).
By
Dr. Smarajit Sarkar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Metallurgical and Materials
Engg.
National institute of Technology,
Rourkela
33
4
Introduction
Silicon Reaction
Manganese reaction
Phosphorous Reaction
Carbon Reaction
Vacuum Degassing
33
5
33
8
33
9
34
0
The interaction of the oxygen jet(s) with the bath produces crater(s)
on the surface, from the outer lip(s) of which, a large number of tiny
metal droplets get splashed.
These droplets reside for a short time in the slag above the bath.
Therefore, the existence of a metal-slag-gas emulsion within the
vessel, virtually during the entire blowing/refining period is an integral
part of BOF steelmaking.
34
1
34
2
The rate at which oxygen is blown through the lance, the number of openings
(holes) on the lance tip, the distance between the lance tip and the bath surface
(lance height), the characteristics of the oxygen jets as they impinge on the bath
surface, the volume, basicity and fluidity of the slag, the temperature conditions
in the bath and many other operational variables influence the refining.
34
3
34
4
34
5
Conditions for dephosphorisation are that the slag should be basic, thin and
oxidising and, that the temperature should be low.
Dephosphorisation, therefore, does not take place efficiently until such a slag is
formed. Such a slag is formed in LD process only after the initial 4-6 minutes of
blowing.
34
7
34
8
34
9
35
0
35
1
This means practically that, if the carbon content of the metal is sufficiently
high, the rate of carbon oxidation will be higher at a higher intensity of oxygen
supply. At low concentrations of carbon, however, a higher level of intensity of
oxygen supply will not produce the desired effect and the bath should be
agitated forcedly (in order to intensify the supply of carbon to the reaction
place) so as to increase the rate of carbon oxidation.
35
2
The rate of decarburization can also be limited by the third stage, the evolution of CO.
For a bubble of CO to form in metal, It must overcome the pressure of the column of
metal (pm), slag (psl), and of the atmosphere (pat) above the bubble and also the forces
of the cohesion with the liquid, 2/r i.e.
pCOev pm + psl + pat + 2/r
The value of 2/r becomes practically sensible at low values of bubble radius: at r > I
mm it can be neglected. Formation of bubbles in the bulk of liquid metal is practically
impossible.. They can only form on interfaces between. phases, such as slag - metal,
non-metallic inclusion - metal, gas bubble - metal or lining - metal. The most favorable
conditions for the nucleation of CO bubbles exist on boundaries between the metal
and refractory lining which has a rough surface and is poorly wettable by the metal
35
3
35
4
35
5
35
6
Slag evolution
During Blow
35
7
35
9
Silica is a very stable oxide, hence once silicon is oxidised to SiO2 the
danger of its reversion does not arise.
36
0
36
1
36
2
36
3
36
4
or K
Mn 2
Fe
( a Fe 2 ) a Mn
Mn 2
Fe
( 23)
( Fe 2 ) f Mn % Mn
( Mn 2 ) % Fe
( 24 )
( Fe 2 ) % Mn
( 25)
36
5
3
4
36
6
36
8
37
0
(12)
a i.e.
.a 2[P]
.a (3O 2 )
2
P
5
O
2
PO
3
(14 )
f P % P fO % O
2
(13)
3
O 2
The dephosphorising index, D P which is the ratio of phosphorus in slag to that in metal, is given as
DP
( PO 3 )
4
% P
1/ 2
%O5/ 2 (O
)3/ 2
(15)
37
1
Dephosphorisation is more
effective at lower temperature
because DP increases with
decrease of temperature.
37
2
37
3
37
4
1/ 2
1. Basic
slag gives a high value of O22. High lime content lime is the divalent oxide
making the largest contribution to K (log K' =
21N'Ca++ + 18 N'Mg++ + 13N'Mn++ + 12 N'Fe++
3. Ferrous oxide close to 15% .
4. Low temperature gives a high value of K.
37
5
37
7
Thus solubility of carbon in steel can be calculated by combining the binary data from the following equation:
37
8
pCO
pCO
K
a c aO [ fc%C ][ fo%O]
pCO
pCO
[% C ][% O ]
K fc fo
K
38
0
38
1
38
2
38
3
38
4
38
5
38
6
[wt.%H] =
38
7
38
8
38
9
39
0
39
2
2[H] = H2 (g)
2[N] = N2 (g)
[C] + [O] = CO (g)
The effectiveness of vacuum treatment
increases with increase in the surface area
of liquid steel exposed to vacuum.
For this purpose metal is allowed to flow in
the form of thin stream or even fall as
droplets to accelerate the degassing
process.
39
3
39
4
2.
Stream Degassing
In this case molten steel is allowed to flow
down under vacuum as a stream from the
furnace to ladle to another ladle or a mould.
A very high rate of degassing is achieved
due to large increase in surface area of
molten steel in the form of falling droplets.
Thus choice of proper vacuum pump and
vacuum chamber is important to achieve
the adequate level of degassing.
39
5
3.
Circuilation Degassing
39
6
D-H Vessel.
The
chamber
through 50-60
cycle time of 20
steel is exposed
is
moved
cm with a
sec. 10-15%
at a time.
degassing
cycles
in
is
15-20
39
7
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
39
8
39
9
40
0
The
Removal
40
1
40
2
Better mixing and mass transfer in the metal bath with closer approach
to equilibrium for [C]-[O]-CO reaction, and consequently, lower bath
oxygen content at the same carbon content
40
3
40
4
40
5
40
7
40
8
What
41
0
41
1
41
2
41
3
If the metal is tapped and teemed without being deoxidized, the reaction
[O] + [C] = COg will take place between the dissolved oxygen and
carbon as the metal is cooled slowly in the mould. Bubbles of carbon
monoxide evolve from the solidifying metal, agitate the metal in the
mould vigorously, and the metal surface is seen to 'boil'. Such steel is
called 'wild'; when solidified, it will be termed 'rimming steel' .
In some cases, only partial deoxidation is carried out, i.e. oxygen is only
partially removed from the metal. The remaining dissolved oxygen
causes the metal to boil for a short time. This type of steel is termed
'semi-killed'.
41
4
The activity of oxygen in the metal can be lowered by two methods: (I)
by lowering the oxygen concentration, or
(2) by combining oxygen into stable compounds.
There are the following main practical methods for deoxidation of steel:
(a) precipitation deoxidation, or deoxidation in the bulk;
(b) diffusion deoxidation;
(c) treatment with synthetic slags; and
(d) vacuum treatment.
41
5
41
6
41
7
41
8
41
9
42
0
42
1
42
2
Since the ingot is withdrawn continuously from the mould, the frozen
layer of steel is subjected to stresses. This is aggravated by the
stresses arising out of thermal expansion/ contraction and phase
transformations.
Such stresses are the highest at the surface. Moreover, when the
ingot comes out of the mould, the thickness of the frozen steel shell is
not very appreciable. Furthermore, it is at around 1100-1200C, and is
therefore, weak. All these factors tend to cause cracks at the surface
of the ingot leading to rejections.
Use of a tundish between the ladle and the mould results in extra
temperature loss. Therefore, better refractory lining in the ladles,
tundish, etc. are required in order to minimise corrosion and erosion
by molten metal.
42
3
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
42
4
improvement
in quality
improvement in production rate
decrease in energy consumption
use of relatively cheaper grade or
alternative raw materials
use of alternate sources of energy
higher recovery of alloying elements.
42
6
Lower
impurity contents .
Better cleanliness. (i.e. lower inclusion
contents)
Stringent quality control. (i.e. less variation
from heat-to-heat)
Microalloying to impart superior properties.
Better surface quality and homogeneity in
the cast product.
42
7
The
42
8
The
43
1
inc
),
43
2
43
3
o
o
43
4
43
5
43
7
Ladle
Stream
degassing processes
Circulation
43
8
43
9
44
0
Molten steel is contained in the ladle. The two legs of the vacuum
chamber (known as Snorkels) are immersed into the melt. Argon is
injected into the up leg.
Rising and expanding argon bubbles provide pumping action and lift the
liquid into the vacuum chamber, where it disintegrates into fine droplets,
gets degassed and comes down through the down leg snorkel, causing
melt circulation.
44
1
44
2
44
3
44
4
44
5
44
6
44
7
44
8
44
9
45
0
45
1
45
2
45
3
The fine DRI is compacted and then charged in the form of Hot
Compacted Iron (HCI) into the melter gasifier. So, before charging
to the melter- gasifier unit of the FINEX unit, this material is
compacted in a hot briquetting press to give hot compacted iron
(HCI)
since the melter- gasifier can not use fine material (to ensure
permeability in the bed).
45
5
Ahindra Ghosh and Amit Chatterjee: Ironmaking and Steelmaking Theory and Practice, PrenticeHall of India Private Limited, 2008
Anil K. Biswas: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking, SBA Publication,1999
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Iron Making, Khanna Publishers.
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Steel Making, Khanna Publishers.
David H. Wakelin (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Ironmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
Richard J.Fruehan (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Steeelmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
A.Ghosh, Secondary Steel Making Principle & Applications, CRC Press 2001.
R.G.Ward: Physical Chemistry of iron & steel making, ELBS and Edward Arnold, 1962.
F.P.Edneral: Electrometallurgy of Steel and Ferro-Alloys, Vol.1 Mir Publishers,1979
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan,: "Kinetics of the Reaction of SiO(g) with Carbon Saturated Iron":
Metall. Trans. B, Vol. 16B, 1985, p. 121.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan: "The Reaction of SiO(g) with Liquid Slags, Metall. Trans.B,
Volume 17B, 1986, p. 397.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan:.Transfer of Silicon in Blast Furnace": , Proceedings of the fifth
International Iron and Steel Congress, Washington D.C., 1986, p. 959.
P. F. Nogueira and R. J. Fruehan: Blast Furnace Softening and Melting Phenomena - Melting
Onset in Acid and Basic Pellets", , ISS-AIME lronmaking Conference, 2002, pp. 585.
45
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Paulo Nogueira, Richard Fruehan: "Blast Furnace Burden Softening and Melting
Phenomena-Part I Pellet Bulk Interaction Observation", , Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, Volume 35B, 2004, pp. 829.
P.F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan: 'Fundamental Studies on Blast Furnace Burden
Softening and Melting", Proceedings of 2nd International Meeting on lronmaking,
September 2004, Vitoria, Brazil.
Paulo F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan, "Blast Furnace Softening and Melting
Phenomena - Part III: Melt Onset and Initial Microstructal Transformation in Pellets",
submitted to Materials and Metallurgical Transactions B.
Paulo F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan :Blast Furnace Burden Softening and Melting
Phenomena-Part II Evolution of the Structure of the Pellets", Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions, Volume 36B, 2005, pp. 583
MA Jitang: Injecuion of flux into Blast Furnace via Tuyeres for optimizing slag
formation ISIJ International, Volume 39, No7 1999,pp697
Y.S.Lee, J.R.Kim, S.H.Yi and D.J.Min: Viscous behavior of CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgOFeO Slag, Proceedings of VIIInternational Conferenceon -Molten slags,fluxes and
salts, The South African Institute of Minig and Metallurgy, 2004,pp225
45
7
45
8
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
45
9