Misc

Chapter Four

Basic Test and

Measurement Instruments

3:

Miscellaneous
Instruments
02:28:25 PM

CH

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Fall 2015

ME-3504

Sensors, Actuators
and
Instrumentation
5th Semester (Mechatronics)
SZABIST, Karachi
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Misc

Nasreen Bano
Lecturer
(Department of Mechatronic Engineering)
nasreen.bano@szabist.edu.pk
Office: 100 Campus 3rd Floor R-304

Course Support: Zabdesk

02:28:26 PM

Course Outline

Misc

1. Fundamentals
2. Basic Test & Measurement Instruments
a. DC (Electro-mechanical)
b. AC Measurements
c. Digital Measurements
d. Data Acquisition
e. Display & Graphical Instruments

3. Sensors
4. Actuators
5. Mechatronic Systems

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Chapter Contents

Data Acquisition
Digital Measurements
1. Digital Voltmeter
2. Digital Frequency Meter
3. Digital RLC Meter

Display & Graphical Instruments

4. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
5. Signal Generators
6. Signal Analyzers

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Data
Acquisition

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Data Acquisition

Data Acquisition:

Introduction

General ADC Process

ADC

DAC

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Data Acquisition:

02:28:26 PM

Data Acquisition

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Data Acquisition

Data Acquisition:

Naturally occurring signals: Analog

Efficient devices: Digital

To properly acquire an analog voltage signal for digital processing,

the following components must be properly selected and applied
in this sequence:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sensors
Buffer amplifier
Filter
Analog-to-digital converter
Computer

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Data Acquisition

Data Acquisition:
Sensor: First acquisition device (a sensor/transducer) to sense
the (usually) physical quantity to be acquired
Buffer Amplifier: Isolates the output from the input (i.e., it draws
negligible current and power from the input) and provides a
signal in a range close to but not exceeding the full input voltage
range of the A/D converter.
Filter: Usually a low-pass filter is necessary to remove any
undesirable high- frequency components in the signal that could
produce aliasing. The cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter
should be no greater than the sampling rate.
ADC: Analog signal to digital version for processing with a digital
hardware/system.
Computer: For control (as central processing unit), and processing
of the acquired data.
02:28:26 PM

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0

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1
1

ADCs

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ADCs

Analog to Digital Conversion:

General Block Diagram of ADC

ADC

DAC

IN

ADC

OUT

Electrical Symbol

02:28:26 PM

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2

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ADCs

1
3

Analog to Digital Conversion:

General Block Diagram:

Analog
input

Sampler

Quantize
r
Encoder

Digital
Bit
Stream

0101 0110 0110 0110 1010 0011 0000 0000

0000 1110

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ADCs

ADC General Block Diagram:

1. Sampler:
Discretization of signal along horizontal axis
Usually a simple switch with fixed sample time n (e.g., S/H
circuit)
Sampling error and Nyquist frequency/rate
Sampling rate affects bandwidth, signal quality & transmission
rate

2. Quantizer:

Definition of horizontal levels (Quantization levels)

Rounding of discrete signals amplitudes w.r.t defined QLs

Quantization error and quantizers resolution

Resolution affects bandwidth, signal quality, transmission

rate, bit rate and encoders length

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4

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ADCs

1
5

ADC General Block Diagram:

3. Encoder:

Assignment of binary code to each quantization level

Translates decimal valued signal to equivalent binary signal

0101

0110

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0110 0110 1010 0011

0 0000 1110

0000

000

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1
6

Types

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DAC Types:
1. Ladder

ADC Types:
2. Flash ADC
3. Successive approximation
4. Sigma-delta
5. Ramp type

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DAC/ADC

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1
8

Ladder
DAC

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1
9

MSB & LSB:

3- bit Truth Table

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2
0

DAC:

Ladder
DAC

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DAC

2
1

DAC:
Example 6-1
A 500mA level is to be converted into a 7-bit digital code. Determine the
resolution of the conversion and the analog levels represented by the LSB &
MSB, & calculate the analog level represented by 1111111.

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DAC

2
2

R/2R Ladder DAC:

Two values of resistors R and 2R

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DAC

2
3

R/2R Ladder DAC:

Two values of resistors R and 2R

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DAC

2
4

R/2R Ladder DAC:

Two values of resistors R and 2R

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DAC

2
5

R/2R Ladder DAC:

Example 6-6
Calculate the output voltage from 5-bit DAC ,when the digital input is
00001,10000 & 1111 and Vi = 10V.

Example
Sketch a 4 bit DAC n/w and explain its operation.

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2
6

ADC Types

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ADC
Digital representation of analog quantity:

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7

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ADC
Digital representation of analog quantity:

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8

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ADC
Ramp Type ADC:

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9

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ADC
Ramp Type ADC:

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0

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ADC
Example 6.5:
A linear-ramp ADC uses a 10-bit counter and a 15KHz clock
frequency. The counter output is to be 1111111111 when the
input voltage is 100mV. Calculate the required ramp rate-ofchange and the ADC conversion time.

3
1

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Staircase Ramp Type ADC:

ADC

3
2

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Staircase Ramp Type ADC:

ADC

3
3

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3
4

Digital
Voltmeter
s

Misc

Digital Voltmeters

Ramp-generator type Digital Voltmeter:

Components:

ADC

BCD-7-seg driver

7-seg display

Working principle:

Generation of a time pulse proportional to the input voltage

3
5

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Digital Voltmeters

3
6

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Digital Voltmeters

3
7

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Digital Voltmeters
Example 6-1:
Calculate the maximum time t1 for the digital voltmeter (ramp-type), if the clock
generator frequency is 1.5 MHz. Also, suggest a suitable frequency for the
ramp generator. Where maximum counted pulses: N = 1999
(1.33 ms, 600 Hz).

3
8

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3
9

Digital
Multimeter
Meters

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Digital Multimeters

Basic Hand-held Digital multimeter:

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0

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Digital Multimeters

High performance Hand-held Digital multimeter:

4
1

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Digital Multimeters

Basic Hand-held Digital multimeter:

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2

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4
3

Digital
Frequency
Meters

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Digital Frequency Meters

Frequency Measuring Systems:

Waveform
generation

ADC

Digital
measurements

4
4

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Digital Frequency Meters

Frequency Measuring Systems:

Basic Frequency Meter:

Time base

Digital counting circuit

Input
waveform
circuitry

Counter driver circuitry

shaping

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5

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Digital Frequency Meters

4
6

Digital Frequency Meters

Misc
Range Changing:

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7

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Digital Frequency Meters

Example 6-3:
A digital frequency meter has a time base derived from 1 MHz clock generator
frequency-divided by decade counters. Determine the measured frequency when a
1.512 kHz sine wave is applied and the time base uses (a) six decade counters and
(b) four decade counters.(1.512 kHz, 1.5 kHz)

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8

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4
9

Digital L & C
Measurement
s

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Digital L & C Meters

5
0

Inductance Measurement:

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Digital L & C Meters

5
1

Capacitance/Inductance Measurement:

Calibratio
n
n/w

Trigger

A-stable
multivibrator
Monostable
Pulse
generator

R Cx/Lx
RC n/w

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AND

Pulse Count

Binary-DecDecoder
Driver
7-segDisplay
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5
2

Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

5
3

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:

For the study of all types of waveforms

Measures:

Peak voltage

Frequency

Phase difference

Pulse width

Delay time

Rise time

Fall time

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

5
4

CRO Major Components:

Cathode Ray Tube

Working Principle

Display

Front Panel

Controls and Measurements

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5
5

Cathode Ray
Tube

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Cathode Ray Tube

5
6

A vacuum tube (an evacuated glass envelope of large size, heavy,

and relatively fragile) contains:
1. Electron gun: a source of electrons
2. A fluorescent screen
3. Electron beam deflection and acceleration mechanism
4. Graticule

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Cathode Ray Tube

5
7

CRT Basic Components :

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Electron gun
Heater
Control grid
Cathode
Anode
Electron beam
Focusing coils
Deflecting coils
Florescent screen
Graticule

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02:28:29 PM

Cathode Ray Tube

5
8

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5
9

CRT Basic
Components

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
0

CRT Basic Components :

1.

Electron gun: to generate narrow, intense & high energy beam of electrons
Heater: heats the filament up (tungsten), heated by electric current
Control grid: controls flow of electrons
Cathode: filament or (metal oxides, Cesium cathode heated at 954o C)

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
1

CRT Basic Components :

2.

Anode: +vely charged electrode,

accelerates & focuses electrons

3.

Electron beam: stream of electrons;

produces tiny, bright & visible spot on the phosphor-coated
screen

4.

Focusing coils: magnetic coils

control the correct positioning
of the electron beam on the
required point on the screen

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
2

CRT Basic Components :

5.
6.
7.

Deflecting coils: generates extremely low frequency EMF to deflect EB in vertical and
horizontal directions (input signals connection)
Florescent screen:
Graticule

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6
3

Ray Tracing
Mechanism

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
4

CRT Ray Tracing Mechanism:

1.

Electron Gun
a. Triode Section
b. Focusing

2. Deflection
a. Vertical deflection plates
b. Horizontal deflection plates
3.
4.
5.
6.

Post deflection acceleration

Aquadag
Screen
Graticule

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
5

CRT Ray Tracing Mechanism:

Deflection Section:

Deflection factor: Voltage required to produce one division of deflection (V/cm)

Deflection Sensitivity: Deflection produced by 1 V (cm/V)

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
6

CRT Ray Tracing Mechanism:

Deflection Section:
l

Deflection
D

+V
Deflection plates

d
Electron beam
-V

02:28:29 PM

Angle of deflection

Screen

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Cathode Ray Tube

6
7

CRT Ray Tracing Mechanism:

Deflection Sensitivity:
Example 8-1: (Buchla)
A CRT with 3 cm plates, separated by a distance of 1.0 cm is operated with an accelerating
voltage of 1.0 kV. The length of the CRT from the deflecting field to the face of CRT is 22 cm.
What voltage is required b/w the deflection plates to deflect the beam by 4 cm on the
screen? (121 V)

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6
8

Waveform
Display

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Waveform Display:

02:28:29 PM

Display

6
9

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Waveform Display:

Display

7
0

Example 9-1:

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Display

Horizontal Sweep Generator:

7
1

Ramp generator

Sweep Time
Control

Amplifier

v2

02:28:30 PM

v1

Schmitt
Trigger

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Horizontal Sweep Generator:

02:28:30 PM

Display

7
2

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Horizontal Sweep Generator:

Display

7
3

Trigger voltage levels:

Ramp voltage:

Transistor current:

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Horizontal Sweep Generator:

Display

7
4

Example 9-2:

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7
5

CRO Controls

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CRO Controls

7
6

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CRO Controls

7
7

Systems of CRO used to maintain a clear and steady trace on the screen and overall proper
functioning:

Graticule: A calibrated flat piece of hard plastic for precise measurements and protection of
the screen
Intensity control: for
adjustment
of
Focus
control:
for
brightness of the spot
adjustment of fineness
on
the
screen
of electron beam on the
(accomplished
by
screen (by varying the
varying
voltage
b/w
potential
of
middle
focusing
and
anode with the help of a
accelerating anodes)
potentiometer)
Calibrator: an oscillator, which
generates a known and fixed
voltage in square waveform built
in CRO for calibration purpose
Probe adjust: Usually 2 KHz and
0.2 to 2V p-p square wave output
for testing purpose

02:28:30 PM

Beam Finder: Push

button to locate a
display, shifted off the
screen
Trace rotation: Notch
to adjust trace angle

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CRO Controls

7
8

Input
connectors

CRO Channels A and B

Horizontal/Vertical position controls: for
moving the beam on any part of the
screen. (by applying a dc voltage to H/V
plates)
Vertical Sensitivity: scaling of the
display to the input voltage (Volts/Div)
Vernier Knob: V/Div calibration adjustment
Wave type selector

02:28:30 PM

Horizontal
Sensitivity:
time
scaling
factor
Time/Div
(common for both channels)
Vernier knob for calibration

Mode selector
Channel
Dual
ADD
Inv B/A
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CRO Controls

7
9

CRO Trigger Section:

Trigger Source:

Internal Trigger : Time base connected to internal signal

generator

External Trigger : Time base connected to external

source (EXT)
with a coaxial cable

Line: Signal from power line

CH1/CH2: Time base takes trigger from channels

TV : For TV video study

A-B Sweep: (or X-Y sweep): Channel B for vertical deflection and
channel A for horizontal deflection
Trigger level knob: for trigger point adjustment of the input wave
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8
0

Measuremen
ts

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Measurements
1.

Peak-peak voltage

2.

Frequency determination

3.

Phase measurement
a. Sweep method
b. Lissajous pattern (x-y mode)

4.

Rise time, fall time and delay time

5.

Pulse distortion

02:28:30 PM

8
1

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8
2

Amplitude and
frequency
Measurements

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Peak-peak voltage

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Measurements

8
3

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Peak-peak voltage

02:28:30 PM

Measurements

8
4

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Frequency determination:

02:28:30 PM

Measurements

8
5

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Frequency determination:

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Measurements

8
6

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Measurements

8
7

ExampleDetermine
9-3:
the amplitude, frequency and phase difference b/w the two given waveforms

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8
8

Pulse measurements

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Pulse Measurement:

Pulse amplitude
Pulse width
Space width

Rise time
Fall time
Delay time

02:28:31 PM

Measurements

8
9

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Pulse Measurement:

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Measurements

9
0

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Measurements

9
1

ExampleDetermine
9-4:
the pulse amplitude, frequency, rise time and fall time of the given waveform

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Pulse Distortion:

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Measurements

9
2

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Pulse Distortion:

Measurements

9
3

Example 9-6, 7:
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9
4

Phase Measurements

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Phase Measurement:

p
e
e
w
S

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Measurements

9
5

d
o
h
t
e

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Phase Measurement:

s
s
i
L

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ou
j
a

n
r
te
t
a
P
s

Measurements

9
6

d
o
h
et

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Phase Measurement:

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Measurements

9
7

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Measurements

9
8

X Y Displays

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Measurements

9
9

X Y Displays

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Measurements

1
0
0

X Y Displays

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Measurements

1
0
1

X Y Displays

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Measurements

1
0
2

X Y Displays

Lab Work
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Measurements

Example
Determine the phase shifts of the four patterns of the following
figure:

0
sin 1 0o
2
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1
0
3

1
sin 1 30o
2
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Measurements

1
0
4

Example
Determine the phase shifts of the four patterns of the following
figure:

2
sin 1 90o
2

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0
5

Signal
Generators

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Signal Generator

Generates Sine, Square, & Triangular waves

Basic wave form: Triangular (rest are driven from it)
Range: a fractions of Hz to 2MHz
Modulation capabilities: Amplitude, frequency, phase, pulse width and VCO control

Primary waveform type:

Sine wave in AF and RF generators
Triangular in FG

02:28:31 PM

1
0
6

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Signal Generator

1
0
7

Signal Generator Types:

Audio Frequency Generators

Radio Frequency Generators

Function Generators

Pulse Generators

Random signal generators

Pattern generators

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Signal Generator

1
0
8

Signal Generator Types:

10 MHz Pulse Generator

10 MHz Pulse Generator:

The B&K Precision Model 4030 is a versatile signal
source which combines four functions into one
unit--waveform generation, pulse generation
(through variable symmetry), frequency sweep
operation, and triggered operation.

02:28:31 PM

The 4030 offers low rise and fall time pulsed

signals up to 10MHz to meet many test and
measurement applications.
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Signal Generator

1
0
9

Signal Generator Types:

Arbitrary Function generator with Counter
o Wide frequency range of 1 uHz up to 120 MHz for Sine
o Sine and square output plus 27 additional built-in
arbitrary waveforms
o Clean and stable output of very small signals down to
the 1 mV to 10 mV range (50 ohms)
o Support of internal and external modulation sources as
well as internal, external, and gated trigger sources
o Convenient data input via numeric keypad or knob
o Adjust modulation parameters precisely and over a
wide range
o Fully programmable via the standard RS232 interface
using SCPI compatible commands
o 100
MHz
Universal
Counter
with
frequency
measurement and totalize function

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Signal Generator

1
1
0

Signal Generator Types:

5 MHz Function Generator

0.5 Hz to 5 MHz
Sine, Square, Triangle, Pulse, & Ramp output
Coarse and Fine tuning
4 digit LED display
Variable duty cycle
Variable DC offset
Variable amplitude output plus 20dB attenuator
20Vpp output into open circuit (10Vpp into 50
s)

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Signal Generator

1
1
1

Signal Generator Types:

50 MHz Function/Arbitrary Function Generator

14-bit, 125 MSa/s, 16k point arbitrary waveform generator

Large 3.5-inch LCD color display with waveform preview
Linear and logarithmic sweep
AM/DSB-AM/ASK/FM/FSK/PM/PWM modulation functions
Variable DC offset
Adjustable duty cycle
Two independent channels with individual output On/Off
buttons
Internal/external triggering
Gate and burst mode
48 built-in predefined arbitrary waveforms
Store/recall up to 10 instrument settings and 10 arbitrary
waveforms
Built-in counter
USB device port (USBTMC-compliant) with front panel USB
host port
GPIB connectivity with optional USB-to-GPIB adapter (model
AK40G)
SCPI-compliant command set
Short
02:28:32
PM circuit protection on outputs

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1
1
2

Function
Generators

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Block Diagram of a basic Function Generate:

Signal Generator

1
1
3

Range switch

Frequency Dial

Mode switch
Triangular wave generator

Sine
shaper

Switc
h

A1

A2

Attenuat
or

Output

+
current
source

- current
source

Symmetry
control
02:28:32 PM

Switch
Output
Line

Level
detecto
r

Squarin
g circuit
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Signal Generator

114

Block Diagram of Function Generate:

Triangular Wave Generator

A +ve constant current source feeds a capacitor

Capacitor develops a linear output

For ve cycle of the triangular, capacitors charging switched to ve constant source

Rate of change depends on varying either

The size of the capacitor

Amount of charging time

slope : I or size of C
slope : I or size of C

slope pulse repetition rate (vise versa)

Thus size C and I can both be controlled

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Signal Generator

115

Block Diagram of Function Generate:

Sine shaper

Square wave generation

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Frequency
Analyzers

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Signal Analyzers

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1
1
7

Used to analyze the spectral composition of the signals

Analog: band-pass filter bank
Digital: DF`T computations

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Signal Analyzers

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118

Spectra Types:
Line
Continuous

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References

1.
2.

Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement (2e) David A. Bell

Berlin and Getz

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Traderscity.com, Alibaba.com, embedds.com, radiomuseum.com

B and K Precision
Wikipedia Encyclopedia
Instapex.com
Allaboutcircuits,
hobbyprojects,
ntu.edu.sg
,
level1.physics.dur.ac.uk

119

nitehwk.com,

8. www.virtual-oscilloscope.com
9. GW instek
10. Picture Credits (pic crdt.pdf)

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