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Materials science
involves understanding the composition structure of materials and how they control the properties
The microstructure of materials typically covers the length scale from around 1 to
1000 mm, and microstructural features in metals such as
the grain size, grain structure, precipitates and defects (e.g. voids, brittle
inclusions)
The crystal structure and nanoscopic-sized crystal defects in metals and the
molecular structures of the fibres and polymer in composites
The aim of materials science is to understand how the physical, mechanical and other properties
are controlled over the different length scales.
The properties needed by materials are dependent on the type of the component
ability to carry stress without deforming excessively or breaking;
resist corrosion or oxidation;
operate at high temperature without softening;
provide high structural performance at low weight or low cost;
Most materials are too expensive, heavy or soft or they lack sufficient corrosion
Ceramics (over 10 000),
resistance, fracture toughness or some other important property.
Composites and natural substances such as wood.
Only a tiny percentage of materials, less than 0.05%, are suitable to use in the airframe and engine components of
aircraft, helicopters and spacecraft.
< 100 types of metal alloys, composites, polymers and ceramics have the combination of essential
properties needed for aerospace applications.
Aluminium alloys
Titanium alloys
Steels
Composites
Nickel-based alloys
Other materials
for specific applications for certain types of aircraft, but are not mainstream materials used in large quantities.
magnesium alloys
fibremetal laminates
metal matrix composites
woods, ceramics for heat insulation tiles for rockets and spacecraft, and radar absorbing materials for stealth military
Aircraft
Many other materials used in aircraft:
copper for electrical wiring
semiconductors for electronic devices
synthetic fabrics for seating and other furnishing.
Structural materials and their weight percentage used in the airframes of civilian
and
military737
aircraft
(a) Boeing
(d) Boeing 787
(f)F-22
Raptor
General Aviation planes vary in size and shape but the basic parts remain the same
Cessna Caravan
Cirrus SR20
Piper Seneca
Eclipse 500
1.Weight is the force of gravity. It acts in a downward directiontoward the center of the Earth.
2.Lift is the force that acts at a right angle to the direction of motion through the air. Lift is created by differences
in air pressure.
3.Thrust is the force that propels a flying machine in the direction of motion. Engines produce thrust.
4.Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. Drag is caused by friction and differences in air
pressure.
WINGS
LOW WING
MID WING
HIGH WING
WING SHAPE
RECTANGULAR
SWEPT
WING :
FLAPS
AILERONS
TAPERED
DELTA
WING NUMBER
MONOPLANE
TRIPLANE
BIPLANE
AILERONS
WING
FLAPS
extended for approach, landing and take-off to
increase the lift of the wings at low speed
Left turn
FUSELAGE The fuselage is made up of the cockpit, which includes the seating and instruments for the
pilot and sometimes the co-pilot, and the body of the plane, which may carry passengers,
cargo or both.
EMPENNAGE /
TAIL UNIT
Tail of the airplane is made up of two main parts, the vertical stabilizer and the
horizontal stabilizer. Each of these parts has a role to play in the flight of the
airplane
RUDDER
ELEVATORS
hinged to the HOROZONTAL STABILIZER, move in
same direction to control the pitch (up/down) of
the airplane (control stick push/pull)
PROPELLER
Most General Aviation airplanes have one piston engine that drives a
propeller
UNDERCARRIAGE
Types of landing gear :
NOSE WHEEL
Spacecraft:
A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a
variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space
colonization, planetary exploration, and transportation of humans and cargo.
Materials selection
Specific strength is defined as the yield strength divided by density.
Relates the strength of a material to its mass (lead has a very low specific strength, titanium a high specific strength).
Stiffness (deformation vs. load)
Stress corrosion resistance
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
Fracture and fatigue resistance
Materials contain microcracks (unavoidable)
Crack propagation can lead to total failure of a structure.
Extensive examination and non-destructive testing to determine that no cracks exists above a specified (and thus safe)
length.
Use alternative load paths so that no one structure is a single point failure and load is spread across the structure.
Thermal parameters
Thermal and electrical conductivity
Thermal expansion/contraction (materials may experience extremes of temperature).
Sublimation, outgassing and erosion of materials.
Ease of manufacture and modification
Material homogeneity (particularly composites - are their properties uniform throughout?).
Machineability (brittleness - ceramics difficult to work with)
Spacecraft structures
Top 18 highest melting point elements
Elements (refractories)
Symbol
Carbon (diamond)
3820
5100 (s)
3513
Tungsten
3680
5930
19300
Rhenium
Re
3453
5900
21020
Osmium
Os
3327
5300
22590
Tantalum
Ta
3269
5698
16654
Molybdenum
Mo
2890
4885
10200
Niobium
Nb
2741
5015
8570
Iridium
Ir
2683
4403
22420
Ruthenium
Ru
2583
4173
12370
Boron
2573
3931
2340
Hafnium
Hf
2503
5470
13310
Technicium
T*
2445
5150
11500
Rhodium
Rh
2239
4000
12410
Vanadium
2160
3650
6110
Chromium
Cr
2130
2945
7190
Zirconium
Zr
2125
4650
6506
Protactinium
Pa
2113
4300
15370
Platinum
Pt
2045
4100
21450
Spacecraft Materials
Spacecraft Materials
Beryllium (BeCu)
=1848 kg m-3, melting point=1551 K
Stiffest naturally occurring material (beryllium metal doesnt occur
naturally but its compounds do).
Low density, high specific strength
High temperature tolerance
Expensive and difficult to work
Toxic (corrosive to tissue and carcinogenic)
Low atomic number and transparent to X-rays
Pure metal has been used to make rocket nozzles.
Spacecraft Materials
Spacecraft Materials
Spacecraft Materials
Spacecraft Materials
Other alloys
Inconel (An alloy of Ni and Co)
High temperature applications such as heat shields and rocket
nozzles.
High density (>steel, 8200 km m-3).
Aluminium-lithium
Similar strength to aluminium but several percent lighter.
Titanium-aluminide
Brittle,metals:
but lightweight and high temperature resistant.
Refractory
Spacecraft Materials
Spacecraft Materials
Materials:
Missile:
A flying weapon that has its own engine so that it can travel along distance before
exploding at the place that has been aimed at.
A guided missile is a self-propelled projectile used as a weapon.
Missiles are typically propelled by rockets or jet engines.
Missiles generally have an explosive warhead, although other weapon types may also be
used.
Working of a missile is based on many technological steps :
Targeting and Guidance system
Flight system
Engine
Warhead
Another method is to use a TV camera-using either visible light or infra-red -in order to see the target. The picture may be
used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target, or by a computer doing much the same job.
Types of missiles:
Ballistic missile
Anti -ballistic missile
Air to Air missile
Air to Surface missile
Surface to Surface missile
Surface to Air missile
Cruise missile
Anti-tankguidedmissile
PISTON (PROPELLER)
TURBOPROP (PROPELLER TURBINE)
JET
TURBOFAN
Turbojet Engine:
Turbofan Engine
Turboprop Engine
ENGINE POSITION
ON THE WINGS
PYLONS
ON THE WING
REAR
ENGINE
NUMBER
SINGLE ENGINE
TWIN ENGINE
TRIPLE ENGINE
FOUR (MULTIPLE) ENGINE
Materials Selection:
Aluminium:
Titanium
Titanium alloys are used in both airframe structures and jet engine components
moderate weight, high structural properties (e.g. stiffness, strength, toughness, fatigue)
excellent corrosion resistance
The use of titanium is greater in
ability to retain their mechanical properties at high temperature.
fighter aircraft owing to their need
for higher strength materials than
Various types of titanium alloys with different compositions are used
airliners.
although the most common is Ti6Al4V
titanium accounts for 25% of the
Magnesium
Magnesium is one of the lightest metals, and for this reason was a popular material for lightweight aircraft
structures.
Magnesium was used extensively in aircraft built during the 1940s and 1950s to reduce weight
the usage has declined as it has been replaced by aluminium alloys and composites.
The use of magnesium in modern aircraft and helicopters is typically less than 2% of the total
structural weight.
several factors:
most notably higher cost and lower stiffness and strength compared with aluminium alloys
Magnesium is highly susceptible to corrosion which leads to increased requirements for maintenance
and repair
The use of magnesium alloys is now largely confined to non-gas turbine engine parts and applications
include gearboxes and gearbox housings of piston-engine aircraft and the main transmission housing of
helicopters.
Steel
Steel is the most commonly used metal in structural engineering,
its use as a structural material in aircraft is small (under 510% by weight)
The steels used in aircraft are alloyed and heat-treated for very high strength
about three times stronger than aluminium and twice as strong as titanium.
high elastic modulus (three times stiffer than aluminium) together with good
fatigue resistance and fracture toughness.
This combination of properties makes steel a material of choice for safety-critical
structural components that require very high strength and where space is limited,
such
as the landing gear and wing box components.
steel is not used in large quantities for several reasons, with the most important
being its high density, nearly three times as dense as aluminium and over 50%
denser than
Titanium
Other problems include the susceptibility of some grades of high strength steel to
corrosion and embrittlement which can cause cracking.
Superalloys
Superalloys
a group of nickel,
ironnickel and cobalt alloys used in jet engines.
excellent heat resistant properties and
retain their stiffness, strength, toughness and dimensional stability at temperatures
much higher than the other aerospace structural materials.
Superalloys also have good resistance against corrosion and oxidation when
used at high temperatures in jet engines.
The most important type of superalloy is the nickel-based material that
contains a high concentration of chromium, iron, titanium, cobalt and other
alloying elements
Nickel superalloys can operate for long periods of time at temperatures of
8001000 C, which makes them suitable for the hottest sections of gas turbine
engines.
Superalloys are used in engine components such as the high-pressure turbine blades,
discs, combustion chamber, afterburners and thrust reversers.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Materials Distribution:
Cryogenic properties (alloys are not embrittled at low temperatures and become even stronger as the temperature is
decreased without significant ductility losses)(cryogenic fuel tanks for rockets and launch vehicles)
Aluminum
Aluminum is a light weight material with a density of 0.1 lb/in.3
Pure Al and its alloys have the face centered cubic (FCC) structure, which is stable up to its melting point at 1215 F.
Since the FCC structure contains multiple slip planes (12), this crystalline structure
Disadvantages
low modulus of elasticity
rather low elevated temperature capability, and susceptibility to
corrosion.
Although aluminum alloys can be used for short times at temperatures as
high as 400500 F, their long-term usage temperatures are usually
restricted to 250300 F
Casting alloys
The wrought heat treatable alloys can be precipitation hardened to develop quite high strength levels
alloys include the 2XXX series (AlCu and AlCuMg),
6XXX series (AlMgSi),
7XXX series (AlZnMg and AlZnMgCu)
aluminumlithium alloys of the 8XXX alloy series
The 2XXX and 7XXX alloys, which develop the highest strength levels,
used for metallic airframe components; however, there are some minor applications for some of the 6XXX and
8XXX alloys.
The AlCu alloys of the 2XXX series,
The AlMgSi (6XXX)
In reality, except for a limited number of the 2XXX alloys that are used for welded fuel tanks for launch vehicles,
aluminum welded structure is not widely used for aerospace structures.
1000 alloys include cowl bumps and scoops on small civil aircraft. Alloy 1100 is sometimes used for
aircraft fuel tanks, fairings, oil tanks, and in the repair of wing tips and tanks.
2XXX: AlCu Alloys. The major characteristics of the 2XXX series are:
Heat treatable
High strength, at room and elevated temperatures
3XXX: AlMn Alloys. The major characteristics of the 3XXX series are:
High formability and corrosion resistance with medium strength
Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 1641 ksi
Readily joined by all commercial procedures
Hardened by strain hardening
4XXX: AlSi Alloys. The major characteristics of the 4XXX series are:
Some heat treatable
The use of 4000 alloys in aircraft is
Good flow characteristics, medium strength
limited (because a brittle silicon
Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 2555 ksi phase). 4000 alloys are used in nonEasily joined, especially by brazing and Soldering aerospace applications, in particular
as brazing and welding filler
materials.
5XXX: AlMg Alloys. The major characteristics of the 5XXX series are:
Strain hardenable
Excellent corrosion resistance, toughness, weldability, moderate strength
Building and construction, automotive, cryogenic, marine applications
Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 1851 ksi
used in wing ribs, wing tips,
stiffeners, tanks,
ducting and framework.
6XXX: AlMgSi Alloys. The major characteristics of the 6XXX series are:
Heat treatable
High corrosion resistance, excellent extrudability; moderate strength
Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 1858 ksi
Readily welded by GMAW and GTAW methods
6000 alloys can be age-hardened with the formation of Mg 2Al3and Mg2Si precipitates.
6000 alloys are used in a wide range of non-aerospace components,
such as buildings, rail cars, boat hulls, ship superstructures and, increasingly,
in automotive components.
However, these alloys are rarely used in aircraft because of their low fracture
toughness.
6061 (Al1%Mg0.6Si) is used occasionally in wing ribs, ducting, tanks, fairing and
framework, although this alloy is one of very few used in aircraft.
7XXX: AlZn Alloys. The major characteristics of the 7XXX series are:
Heat treatable
Very high strength; special high toughness versions
Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 3288 ksi
Mechanically joined
The 7000 alloys together with the 2000 alloys represent by far the most
common aluminium alloys used in aircraft.
New high-toughness aluminium alloys for fuselage skins have enabled significant
weight reductions through removal of some circumferential frames.
Precipitation hardening
The wrought heat treatable Al alloys can be precipitation hardened to
develop quite high strength levels.
Precipitation hardening consists of three steps:
(1) solution heat treating
(2) rapidly quenching to a lower temperature
(3) aging
due to the formation of submicroscopic precipitates that severely strain the matrix lattice
The strengthening effect is maximized when the precipitate is coherent with the matrix
A coherent precipitate is one in which the atomic
arrangement of both the precipitate and the matrix is the
same with no discontinuity in the lattice
The atomic spacings are different enough to distort the
crystal lattice
This causes an increase in strength by obstructing and
retarding dislocation movement
Further heating of the alloy causes to transform to the equilibrium precipitate , which is
stoichiometric CuAl2.
Iron and silicon are considered impurities and are held to an absolute minimum, because they form
intermetallic compounds (Al7Cu2Fe and Mg2Si) that are detrimental to both fatigue and fracture
toughness.
The wrought heat treatable 7XXX alloys are even more responsive to precipitation hardening than the
2XXX alloys and can obtain higher strength levels.
The 7XXX alloys can be naturally aged (strength will gradually increase with increasing time and can
continue to do so for years)
7XXX alloys are artificially aged to produce a stable alloy.
is defined
as the to
forging
cold working,
hot working)
Temper
Precipitation
heat treatments,
provide treatment
hardening by(e.g.
precipitation
of constituents
from solid
solution.
Degree of strain
hardening
light weight, moderate cost (for both the raw material and
fabrication processing), and good mechanical performance
including specific stiffness, specific strength, ductility and
fracture toughness.
Aluminium typically accounts for 6080% of the structural
weight of modern passenger airliners and 4060% for fighter
aircraft and helicopters.
Potential problems with using aluminium in aircraft
structures include
stress corrosion cracking; corrosion when in direct contact with
carbonepoxy
2000 (AlCu), 7000 (AlZnMg) and,
in fewer difficulty
cases, 8000
alloys.
composite;
with(AlLi)
welding
high-strength connections; and
The development of aluminium alloys
has proceeded in two distinct directions: one of the tensionsoftening
dominated sections of the airframe
use primarily
the 2000 alloys,
the150
other
for the
at that
relatively
low temperatures
(aboveand
about
C).
compression-dominated sections that use the 7000 alloys.
2000 alloys generally have better fatigue resistance and fracture toughness than 7000 alloys, and
therefore are used where these properties are important such as fuselage skins, lower wing panels
and control surfaces.
7000 alloys have higher strength than 2000 alloys and, therefore, are used in aircraft structures
that are required to carry heavier loads. 7000 alloys are used in upper wing surfaces, spars,
stringers, pressure bulkheads, and
fuselage frames.
8000 series alloys are characterised by high specific stiffness owing to the ability of lithium to
lower the density and increase the elastic modulus of aluminium. Many 8000 alloys also have
The use of 8000 alloys is currently restricted to a small number of aircraft and helicopter components
where high specific stiffness and excellent fatigue performance is critical.
Aircraft alloys are heat treated by age-hardening to maximise their strength properties. The alloys
are solution treated, quenched, and then thermally aged to increase the strength by
precipitation hardening. Other important strengthening processes in aluminium are solid solution
hardening, work hardening and grain-size refinement.
1000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 series cannot be heat treated to induce precipitation hardening
and, therefore, lack the strength and fatigue resistance needed in weight-efficient structures.
The susceptibility of aluminium to stress corrosion cracking increases with the improvement in
strength gained by thermal ageing. Special ageing treatments have been developed to minimise
the risk of stress corrosion damage in aluminium structures.
Moderate density
High strength
Long fatigue life
Fracture toughness
Creep strength excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation
airframe structures
landing gear components
jet engine parts
The early development of jet engines (originally built using heat-resistant steels and nickel alloys)
Not found in its free, pure metal form in nature but as oxides; ilmenite (FeTiO 3); rutile (TiO2); arizonite
(Fe2Ti3O9); perovskite (CaTiO3) and titanite (CaTiSiO5).
currently it accounts for 2530% of the weight of most modern engines
Petroleum: In petroleum exploration and production, flexible titanium pipe's light weight, makes it
an excellent material for deep sea production risers.
Automotive applications: Particularly in motorcycling racing, This area is extremely challenging
because of its cost sensitivity.
Consumer products: such as spectacle frames; cameras; watches; jewelries and various kinds of
sporting goods.
Biomedical field: Such as surgical implements and implants.
Architectural applications: Such as exterior walls and roofing materials.
+.
Alloying elements in titanium are usually classified in two groups of and stabilizing
additions depending on whether increase or decrease / transformation temperature of
882.3oC.
Other stabilizers :
Zr, Hf, Ga, In
Other stabilizers :
Fe,Ni, Cu
Good strength
Good ductility
Good toughness
Good strength
Good toughness
at low temp or high T the growth rate of coherent precipitates are faster
Because precipitation of incoherent precipitates does
not occur at high under cooling rates
At high temp or low T growth rate ratio=1
Two stage annealing
Heat it to beta-----cool it suddenly to just below transition temp-----and hold it
----- before it completes precipitation quench it
Equiaxed Ti alloy
The most effective and common shape-memory alloy is nickeltitanium (titanium content is
4550%)
Nickeltitanium alloys -Nitinol ( Flaps, Ailerons, rudders etc.,)
Several non-titanium alloys also have shape-memory properties
copperzincaluminium
copperaluminiumnickel alloys
Nickeltitanium alloys being considered for use in aircraft exist as two phases:
martensite and austenite
A shape-memory alloy in the undeformed (original) condition exists as twinned martensite.
The microstructure of twinned martensite consists of grains separated by twin boundaries.
These boundaries can be considered as planes of symmetry with a mirror-image of identical
bonding and atomic configuration in both directions.
When twinned martensite is deformed under an externally applied load the twin boundaries
move to produce deformed martensite.
This change is called a displacive transformation, which involves the co-operative
rearrangement of atoms into a different, more stable crystal structure without a corresponding
change in volume.
Shape-memory Alloys
Reversible transformation
Thermo elastic martensitic transformation (she
Very small strains
Load
Rhombohed
ral
BCC
Mf Ms As Af
temperature
Space shuttles
Fasteners, actuators, couplings
Biomedical- bone plates, teeth braces, artificial muscles
Chemical composition
Strains (<8.5%)
Syllabus
Requirement of space and aerospace materials, land base and
aerospace material.
Identification of components of aero planes, space vehicles and
missiles: materials usage in each sections and critically of the
components and their materials selection
Gas turbines and aero engines
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys
Ni and Co based super alloys
Special Steels
Intermetallics, composites
Ceramics and their composite
New high strength materials
Creep, fatigue and corrosion
Steels
high strength steels normally account for only about 515% of the airframe structural
weight
landing gear components, control surface hinges, and helicopter transmissions
The medium carbon low alloy steels and high fracture toughness steels are used primarily in aircraft landing
gears
Peritectic isotherm
0.55%
0.08%
Eutectic isotherm
0.18%
Eutectic isotherm
Hypo eutectic Hyper eutectic
Proeutectoid
Eutectoid
isotherm
martensite
martensite structure is essentially a BCC structure distorted by interstitial carbon atoms into a tetragonal
structure
The distortion severely strains the crystalline lattice and dramatically increases the strength and hardness
Reheated or
to restore some ductility and toughness
tempered
Alloying element
Hardening is done by
Quenching or tempering
In Maraging Steels and Precipitation hardened steels strengthened by
Precipitation hardening
The maraging steels, with nominal nickel ~ 18% and
carbon ~0.03%
Martensite
Even very slow cooling of heavy sections produces a fully martensitic structure.
However, this low carbon martensite is not the high strength martensite that forms in the higher
carbon alloy steels.
The low carbon martensite that is formed is a tough and ductile ironnickel martensite.
softness is an advantage because it results in high ductility and toughness without the need for
tempering.
The softness allows maraging steel to be machined into structural components, unlike hard
martensitic
steels
that must
tempered
before
machining
to avoid
cracking.
After
quenching,
maraging
steel be
undergoes
a final
stage
of strengthening
involving
thermal
ageing before being used in aircraft components.
The strength in the maraging steels results during
age hardening at 480500 C to form precipitates of
Ni3Mo,Ni3Ti, Ni3Al and Fe2Mo (fine dispersion of hard
precipitates within the soft martensite matrix)
carbon content is extremely low
Maraging Steels
high strength steels with very low carbon contents (0.030% maximum) and additions of
substitutional alloying elements that produce age hardening of ironnickel martensites.
The term maraging was derived from the combination of the words martensite and age
hardening.
high hardenability and high strength combined with good toughness.
18% nickel, 79% cobalt, 35% molybdenum, less than 1% titanium, and very low carbon contents.
Carbon is actually viewed as an impurity and kept to as low a level as possible to minimize the
formation of titanium carbide (TiC), which can adversely impact strength, ductility, and toughness.
annealing or hot working temperature ----air cooling (maraging steels transform to a relatively soft
martensite)
Due to their extremely low carbon content, the fracture toughness of the maraging steels is
considerably higher than that of conventional high strength steels.
resistant to hydrogen embrittlement, susceptible to stress corrosion cracking than the medium
carbon low alloy steels.
Processing techniques that improve the fracture toughness,
vacuum melting, proper hot working, and keeping residual impurities low, also improve the
resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Aerospace grades are tripled melted using air, vacuum induction and vacuum arc remelting, to
minimize the residual elements carbon, manganese, sulfur, and phosphorous and the gases
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
Carbon and sulfur are the most deleterious impurities (brittle carbide, sulfide, carbonitride, and
carbosulfide inclusions that can crack when the metal is strained, lowering the fracture toughness
and ductility)
AF1410: specifically to have high strength, excellent fracture toughness, excellent weldability
14% cobalt, 10% nickel, 2% chromium, 1% molybdenum, and 0.15% carbon.
good toughness at cryogenic temperatures and has high strength and stability at
temperatures up to 800 F.
The general corrosion resistance is similar to the maraging steels.
The alloy is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking compared to other high strength
steels.
AerMet 100: nickelcobalt high strength steel
replacing older steels such as 4340, 300M, HP 9-4-30, and AF1410 in many applications due
to its good combination of strength
good toughness at cryogenic temperatures
It is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking compared to other high strength steels of the
same strength level.
Magnesium Alloys:
Crystal structure HCP, a = 0.3202, c = 0.5199, c/a = 1.624
Atomic diameter 0.320 easily alloyed with Al, Zn, Ag, Zr
Density (g.cm-3)- 1.74
Melting point (o C)- 650
Alloyed with Al, Zn, Mn, rare earth metals to produce alloys with high-strength-to weight ratios.
Tends to form compounds with negative valence ion (due to strong electropositive) rather than solid solution.
Not readily plastically deformed at RT due to HCP structure.
Cast magnesium alloys dominate 85-90% of all magnesium alloy products, with Mg-Al-Zn system being the most widely used.
Low strength and toughness and corrosion resistance.
Easily flammable with oxygen Limit applications of magnesium alloy
A Aluminium
B Bismuth
C Copper
D Cadmium
E Rare earths
F Iron
G Magnesium
H Thorium
K Zirconium
L Lithium
M - Manganese
N Nickel
P Lead
The letters stand for the two major alloying elements
Q - Silver
first letter the highest amount
R - Chromium
second letter the second highest amount
S Silicon
The numbers stand for the amount of the two major
T Tin
alloying elements
W Yttrium
first number following the letters stands for the
Z - zinc
wt% of the first letter element.
second number stands for the wt% of the second
letter element