GLOSSARY of terms in EvidenceBased Medicine

This glossary is intended to provide

guidance as to the meanings of EBM
terms. Suggestions and comments
welcome! (email:
paul.glasziou@dphpc.ox.ac.uk)

Absolute Risk Reduction (ARR) is the difference in the

event rate between control group (CER) and treated
group (EER): ARR = CER - EER.
Case-control Study involves identifying patients who
have the outcome of interest (cases) and control patients
without the same outcome, and looking back to see if
they had the exposure of interest. See also glossary of
study designs.
Blinded A study is blinded if any or all of the clinicians,
patients, participants, outcome assessors, or statisticians
were unaware of who received which study intervention.
The double double-blind usually refers to patient and
clinician being blined, but is ambiguous so it is better to
state who is blinded.
Case-series is a report on a series of patients with an
outcome of interest. No control group is involved.

CER Control Event Rate: see Event Rate.

Clinical Practice Guideline is a systematically
developed statement designed to assist
practitioner and patient make decisions about
appropriate health care for specific clinical
circumstances.
Cohort Study involves identification of two
groups (cohorts) of patients, one which did
receive the exposure of interest, and one which
did not, and following these cohorts forward for
the outcome of interest.
Confidence interval (CI): the CI quantifies the
uncertainty in measurement; usually reported as
95% CI, which is the range of values within which
we can be 95% sure that the true value for the
whole population lies.

Cost-Benefit Analysis converts effects into the

same monetary terms as the costs and
compares them.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis converts effects
into health terms and describes the costs for
some additional health gain (e.g. cost per
additional MI prevented).
Cost-Utility Analysis converts effects into
personal preferences (or utilities) and describes
how much it costs for some additional quality
gain (e.g. cost per additional quality-adjusted
life-year, or QALY).
Crossover Study Design: the administration of
two or more experimental therapies one after the
other in a specified or random order to the same
group of patients.

Cross-Sectional Study the observation of a

defined population at a single point in time or time
interval. Exposure and outcome are determined
simultaneously. See also glossary of study
designs. Decision Analysis is the application of
explicit, quantitative methods to analyse
decisions under conditions of uncertainty.
Ecological Survey: based on aggregated data
for some population as it exists at some point or
points in time; to investigate the relationship of an
exposure to a known or presumed risk factor for a
specified outcome.
EER Experimental Event Rate: see Event Rate.

Event Rate is the proportion of patients in a group in

whom an the event is observed. Thus, if out of 100
patients, the event is observed in 27, the event rate is
0.27. Control Event Rate (CER) and Experimental Event
Rate (EER) are used to refer to this in control and
experimental groups of patients respectively.
Evidence-Based Health Care extends the application of
the principles of Evidence-Based Medicine (see below)
to all professions associated with health care, including
purchasing and management.
Evidence-Based Medicine is the conscientious, explicit
and judicious use of current best evidence in making
decisions about the care of individual patients. The
practice of evidence-based medicine means integrating
individual clinical expertise with the best available
external clinical evidence from systematic research. See
also the article on EBM: What it is and what it isn't

Likelihood Ratio is the likelihood of a given test

result in a patient with the target disorder
compared to the likelihood of the same result in a
patient without that disorder. See the Toolbox entry
for Likelihood Ratios.
Meta-analysis is a systematic review or overview
which uses quantitative methods to summarise the
results.
N-of-1 Trials The patient undergoes pairs of
treatment periods organised so that one period
involves the use of the experimental treatment and
one period involves the use of an alternate or
placebo therapy. The patients and physician are
blinded, if possible, and outcomes are monitored.
Treatment periods are replicated until the clinician
and patient are convinced that the treatments are
definitely different or definitely not different.

Negative Predictive Value (-PV) is the

proportion of people with a negative test who are
free of disease. See also SpPins and SnNouts.
Number Needed to Treat (NNT) is the number of
patients who need to be treated to prevent one
bad outcome (also see the Toolbox section on
NNTs). It is the inverse of the ARR:
NNT = 1/ARR.
Odds are a ratio of events to non-events, e.g, if
the event rate for a disease is 0.2 (20 per cent),
its non-event rate is 0.8 (80%), then its odds are
0.2/0.8 = 0.25 (see also Odds Ratio).
Odds Ratio is the odds of an experimental
patient suffering an event relative to the odds of a
control patient..

Overview is a systematic review and summary of the

medical literature.
P-value is the probability of obtaining the same or more
extreme data assuming the null hypothesis of no effect; pvalues are generally (but arbitrarily) considered significant if
p < 0.05.
Positive Predictive Value (+PV) is the proportion of people
with a positive test who have disease. Also called the posttest probability of disease after a positive test See also
SpPins and SnNouts.
Posttest probability: the proportion of patients with that
particular test result who have the target disorder (posttest
odds/ [1 + posttest odds]).
Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial a group of patients
is randomised into an experimental group and a control
group. These groups are followed up for the variables /
outcomes of interest. See also glossary of study designs.

Relative Risk Reduction (RRR) is the percent reduction

in events in the treated group event rate (EER)
compared to the control group event rate (CER):
RRR = (CER - EER) / CER * 100
Risk Ratio is the ratio of risk in the treated group (EER)
to the risk in the control group (CER): RR = EER/CER.
RR is used in randomised trials and cohort studies.
Significance comes in 2 varieties: statistical significance
is when the p-value is small enough to reject the null
hypothesis of no effect; where clinical significance is
when the effect size is large enough to be potentially
considered worthwhile by patients.
Sensitivity is the proportion of people with disease who
have a positive test. See also SpPins and SnNouts.

SnNout when a sign/test has a high sensitivity, a

negative result rules out the diagnosis; e.g. the sensitivity
of a history of ankle swelling for diagnosing ascites is 92
per cent, therefore is a person does not have a history of
ankle swelling, it is highly unlikely that the person has
ascites. See also the Toolbox section on SpPins and
SnNouts.
Specificity is the proportion of people free of a disease
who have a negative test. See also SpPins and SnNouts.
SpPin when a sign/test has a high specificity, a Positive
result rules in the diagnosis; e.g. the specificity of fluid
wave for diagnosing ascites is 92 per cent. Therefore, if
a person has a fluid wave, it is highly likely t hat the
person has ascites. See also the Toolbox section on
SpPins and SnNouts.
Systematic Review is a literature review focused on a
single question which tries to identify, appraise, select
and synthesis all high quality research evidence relevant
to that question.

Didn't find your term here? You could also

try the STEPS statistical glossary.
Last Updated: 4th February, 2005.