VELTECH Dr.RR &Dr.

SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

UEAEA43
HYPERSONIC AERODYNAMICS
PREPARED BY
Mr.S.Sivaraj
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

UNIT - I
FUNDAMENTAL OF HYPERSONIC FLOWS

INTRODUCTION:
Hypersonic flow was loosely defined in
the Introduction as flow in which the Mach
number is greater than about 5. No real
reasons were given at that point as to why
supersonic flows at high Mach numbers were
different from those at lower Mach numbers
and why, therefore, they had to have a
different name.

However, it is the very existence of these

differences that really defines hypersonic
flow. That is, hypersonic flows are flows at
such high Mach numbers that phenomena
arise that do not exist at lower supersonic
Mach
numbers.
The
nature
of
these
hypersonic flow phenomena and, therefore,
the real definition of what is meant by
hypersonic flow will be presented in the next
section.

Hypersonic flows, up to the present,

have mainly been associated with the reentry
of orbiting and other high altitude bodies
into the atmosphere. For example, a typical
Mach number against altitude variation for a
reentering satellite is shown in the following
figure. It will be seen from this figure that
because of the high velocity that the craft
had to possess to keep it in orbit, very high
Mach numbers - values that are well into the
hypersonic range exist during reentry.

Typical variation of
mach number with
altitude during
reentry.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPERSONIC FLOW:

As mentioned above, hypersonic flows
are usually loosely described as flows at very
high Mach numbers, say greater than roughly
5. However, the real definition of hypersonic
flows are that they are flows at such high
Mach numbers that phenomena occur that do
not exist at low supersonic Mach numbers.
These phenomena are discussed in this
section.

One
of
the
characteristics
of
hypersonic flow is the presence of an
interaction between the oblique shock wave
generated at the leading edge of the body
and the boundary layer on the surface of the
body. Consider the oblique shock wave
formed at the leading edge of wedge in a
supersonic flow as shown in the following
figure.

Flow over a wedge.

As the Mach number increases, the shock

angle decreases and the shock therefore lies
very close to the surface at high Mach
numbers. This is illustrated in the following
figure.
Shock angle at
low and high
supersonic
Mach number
flow over a
wedge.

Because the shock wave lies close to the

surface at high Mach numbers, there is an
interaction between the shock wave and the
boundary layer on the wedge surface. In order
to illustrate this shock wave-boundary layer
interaction, consider the flow of air over a
wedge having a half angle of 5 degrees at
various Mach numbers. The shock angle for
any selected value of M can be obtained from
the oblique shock relations or charts. The
angle between the shock wave and the wedge
surface is then given by the difference
between the shock angle and the wedge halfangle. The variation of this angle with Mach
number is shown in the following figure.

Variation of
angle between
shock wave and
surface with
Mach number
for flow over a
wedge.

It will be seen from the above figure

that, as the Mach number increases, the
shock wave lies closer and closer to the
surface.
Hypersonic flow normally only exists at
relatively low ambient pressures (high
altitudes) which means that the Reynolds
numbers tend to be low and the boundary
layer thickness, therefore, tends to be
relatively large.

In hypersonic flow, then, the shock

wave tends to lie close to the surface and
the boundary layer tends to be thick.
Interaction between the shock wave and the
boundary layer flow, as a consequence,
usually occurs, the shock being curved as a
result and the flow resembling that shown in
the following figure.

Interaction between shock wave and boundary layer in

hypersonic flow over a wedge.

The above discussion used the flow

over a wedge to illustrate interaction
between the shock wave and the boundary
layer
flow
in
hypersonic
flow.
This
interaction occurs, in general, for all body
shapes as illustrated in the following figure.

Interaction between shock wave and boundary layer in

hypersonic flow over a curved body.

Another characteristic of hypersonic

flows is the high temperatures that are
generated behind the shock waves in such
flows. In order to illustrate this, consider
flow through a normal shock wave occurring
ahead of a blunt body at a Mach number of
36 at an altitude of 59 km in the atmosphere.
The flow situation is shown in the following
figure.

Normal shock wave

in situation
considered.

These
were
approximately
the
conditions
that
occurred during the
reentry of some of the
earlier
manned
spacecraft, the flow
over such a craft being
illustrated
in
the
figure.
The
flow
situation shown in the
previous
figure
is
therefore
an
Flow over reentering spacecraft.
approximate model of
the situation shown in

Conventional relationships for a normal

shock wave at a Mach number of 36 give:

T2
253
T1
But at 59 km in atmosphere T = 258K (i.e.,
-15oC). Hence, the conventional normal
shock wave relations give the temperature
behind the shock wave as:

T2 258 x 253 65, 200K

At temperatures as high as these a number

of so-called high temperature gas effects
will become important. For example, the
values of the specific heats cp and cv and
their
ratio

changes
at
higher
temperatures, their values depending on
temperature.
For example, the variation of the value of
of nitrogen with temperature is shown in
the following figure. It will be seen from
this figure that changes in may have to
be considered at temperatures above
about 500oC.

Variation of
specific heat ratio
of nitrogen with
temperature.

Another high-temperature effect arises

from the fact that, at ambient conditions,
air is made up mainly of nitrogen and
oxygen in their diatomic form. At high
temperatures, these diatomic gases tend to
dissociate into their monatomic form and at
still higher temperatures, ionization of
these monatomic atoms tends to occur.

Dissociation occurs
circumstances:

under

the

following

For 2000 K T 4000 K :

O2 2O
i.e., the oxygen molecules break down to O molecules.
For 4000 K T 9000 K :
N2 2N
i.e., the nitrogen molecules break down to N molecules.

When such dissociation occurs, energy

is absorbed. It should also be clearly
understood the range of temperatures given
indicates that the not all of the air is
immediately dissociated once a certain
temperature
is
reached.
Over
the
temperature ranges indicated above the air
will, in fact, consist of a mixture of diatomic
and monatomic molecules, the fraction of
monatomic molecules increasing as the
temperature increases.

At still higher temperatures, ionization

of the monatomic oxygen and nitrogen will
occur, i.e.:

For T 9000 K :

OO e

N N e
When ionization occurs, energy is again
absorbed. As with dissociation, ionization
occurs over a range of temperatures the air
in this temperature range consisting of a
mixture of ionized and non-ionized atoms,
the fraction of ionized atoms increasing as

Other chemical changes can also occur

at high temperatures, e.g., there can be a
reaction between the nitrogen and the
oxygen to form nitrous oxides at high
temperatures. This and the other effects
mentioned above are illustrated by the
results given in the following figure. This
figure shows the variation of the composition
of air with temperature.

Variation of equilibrium
composition of air with
temperature.

It will be seen, therefore, that at high

Mach numbers, the temperature rise across
a normal shock may be high enough to cause
specific heat changes, dissociation, and, at
very high Mach numbers, ionization. As a
result of these processes, conventional
shock relations do not apply. For example,
as a result of this for the conditions
discussed above, i.e., for a normal shock
wave at a Mach number of 36 at an altitude
of 59 km in the atmosphere, the actual
temperature behind the shock wave is
approximately 11,000K rather than the value
of 65,200K indicated by the normal shock
relations for a perfect gas.

There are several other phenomena

that are often associated with high Mach
number flow and whose existence help
define what is meant by a hypersonic flow.
For example, as mentioned above, since
most hypersonic flows occur at high
altitudes the presence of low density effects
such as the existence of slip at the
surface, i.e., of a velocity jump at the
surface (see the following figure) is often
taken as an indication that hypersonic flow
exists.

Surface slip in low-density flow.

UNIT - II
Simple Solution Methods For Hypersonic
In Viscid Flows

NEWTONIAN THEORY:
Although the details of the flow about a
surface in hypersonic flow are difficult to
calculate due to the complexity of the
phenomena
involved,
the
pressure
distribution about a surface placed in a
hypersonic flow can be estimated quite
accurately using an approximate approach
that is discussed below. Because the flow
model assumed is essentially the same as
one that was incorrectly suggested by
Newton for the calculation of forces on
bodies in incompressible flow, the model is
referred to as the Newtonian model.

First, consider the flow over a flat

surface inclined at an angle to a hypersonic
flow. This flow situation is shown in the
following figure. Only the flow over the
upstream face of the surface will, for the
moment, be considered.

Hypersonic flow over a plane surface.

Because the shock waves lie so close to the

surface in hypersonic flow, the flow will
essentially be unaffected by the surface until
the flow reaches the surface, i.e., until it
strikes the surface, at which point it will
immediately become parallel to the surface.
Hence, the flow over the upstream face of a
plane
surface
at
hypersonic
speeds
resembles that shown in the following figure.

Newtonian model of hypersonic flow over a plane surface.

In order to find the pressure on the

surface, consider the momentum balance for
the control volume shown in the following
figure.

Control volume considered.

Because the flow is all assumed to be

turned parallel to the surface at the surface,
no momentum leaves the control volume in
the n direction so the force on the control
volume in this direction is equal to the
product of the rate mass enters the control
volume and the initial velocity component in
the
n direction
given by:
mass
flow ratei.e.
x is
velocity
in n-direction =

(V A sin )V sin V A sin

2

Here, A is the area of the surface.

Now if p is the pressure acting on the

upstream face of the surface, the net force
acting on the control volume in the n
direction is given by:

pA p A

In deriving this result, it has been noted that

since the flow is not effected by the surface
until it effectively reaches the surface, the
pressure on ABCDE (see previous figure) is
everywhere equal to p and that the forces
on BC and DE are therefore equal and
opposite and cancel.

Combining the above two results then gives:

( p p ) A V A sin
2

i.e. : p p V sin
2

This result can be expressed in terms of a

dimensionless pressure coefficient, defined
as before by:
p p

Cp

Using this gives:

1
V2
2

C p 2sin
2

From the above analysis it follows that

the pressure coefficient is determined only
by the angle of the surface to the flow. The
above analysis was for flow over a flat
surface. However, it will also apply to a
small portion of a curved surface such as
that shown in the following figure.

Control volume considered in dealing with

flow over a curved surface.

Therefore, the local pressure acting at any

point on the surface will be given as before
by:

p p
2
Cp
2sin
1
2
V
2

This equation can be written as:

p p
2
2

V sin
p
p

Hence, since:

p
a

the above equation gives:

p p
M 2 sin 2
p
i.e.:

p
2
2
1 M sin
p

FORCES ON A BODY: The Newtonian model

gives the pressure distribution on the
upstream faces ( e.g. faces AB and BC of the
two-dimensional wedge shaped body shown
in the following figure) of a body in a
hypersonic flow to an accuracy that is
acceptable for many purposes. To find the
net force acting on a body it is also
necessary to know the pressures acting on
the downstream faces of the body ( e.g.,
face AC of the body shown in the following
Twofigure).
dimensional
flow over a
wedgedshaped body in

As discussed above, in hypersonic

flow, it is effectively only when the flow
reaches the surface that it is influenced by
the presence of the of the surface. The flow
that does not reach the surface is therefore
unaffected by the body. The flow leaving the
upstream faces of the body therefore turns
parallel to the original flow as shown in the
following figure.

Shadowed areas of a body in hypersonic flow.

Since the flow is then all parallel to

the original flow direction and since the
pressure in the outer part of the flow that
was not effected by the presence of the
body is p , the pressure throughout this
downstream flow will be p . From this it
follows that the pressure acting on the
downstream faces of body in Newtonian
hypersonic flow is p . This is illustrated in
the following figure. The downstream faces
on which the pressure is p are often said to
lie in the shadow of the freestream.

In calculating the forces on a body in

hypersonic flow using the Newtonian
model the pressure will be assumed to be
p on the downstream or shadowed
portions of the body surface. There are
more rigorous and elegant methods of
arriving at this assumption but the above
discussion
gives
the
basis
of
the
argument.

To illustrate how the pressure drag

force on a body is calculated using the
Newtonian approach, consider again flow
over a two-dimensional wedge shaped body
shown in the following figure.

Pressures acting on faces of wedged-shaped body

The force on face AB of the body per unit

width is equal to pAB l where l is the length
of AB. This contributes pAB l sin to the
drag. But l sin is equal to W / 2, i.e.,
equal to the projected area of face AB.
Hence the pressure force on AB contributes
pAB W / 2 to the drag.
Because the wedge is symmetrically placed
with respect to the freestream flow, the
pressure on BC will be equal to that on AB
so the pressure force on BC will also
contribute pAB W / 2 to the drag.

Therefore, since AC is a shadowed surface

on which the pressure is assumed to be p ,
the drag on the wedge per unit width is
given by:

p ABW
D 2
pW ( p AB p )W
2

The drag coefficient for the type of body

being considered is defined by:

CD

D
1
2
V x Projected Area
2

But since unit width is being considered, the

projected area normal to the freestream flow
direction is equal to W, hence:

( p AB p )W ( p AB p )
CD

1
1
1
2
2
V W
V W
V2
2
2
2
D

It must be stressed that the above

analysis only gives the pressure drag on the
surface. In general, there will also be a
viscous drag on the body. However, if the
body is relatively blunt, i.e., if the wedge
angle is not very small, the pressure drag
will be much greater than the viscous drag.
The drag on an axisymmetric body is
calculated using the same basic approach
and the analysis of such situations will not
be discussed here.

MODIFIED NEWTONIAN THEORY:

Consider hypersonic flow over a
symmetrical body of arbitrary shape such as
is shown in the following figure.

Form of body being considered.

At any point on the surface, as shown

above, the pressure is given by:

p p V2 sin 2
Hence at the stagnation point where =
90o and where, therefore, sin = 1, the
pressure, pS , is given by:

pS p V

Hence:

pS p
2
1
V2
2

i.e., the pressure coefficient at the

stagnation point is given by:

C pS 2

From these relations it follows that the

pressure distribution about the surface can
be written as:

Cp

C pS
or as:

sin 2

p p
sin 2
pS p

Now the Newtonian theory does not

really apply near the stagnation point.
However, the shock wave in this region is, as
previously discussed, effectively a normal
shock wave. Therefore, the pressure on the
surface at the stagnation point can be found
using normal shock relations and then the
Newtonian relation can be used to determine
the pressure distribution around the rest of
the body.

This means that the previous equation can

be written as:

Cp

C pSN

sin 2

where CpSN is the pressure coefficient at the

stagnation point as given by the normal
shock relations. This is, basically, the
modified Newtonian equation.

Now it will be recalled that the normal shock

relations give:

pS

1 2
2 M

2
1
2
1 M 1

It is also noted that:

1
1

p
1
p p
p
Cp

2
1

V2
2
2

Combining the above equations then gives:

1 2
2 M

C pSN

1
1

2
1
2
M

M 2
1 /

If M is very large the above equation tends

to:

C pSN

1
2

2
1

1
1

For = 1.4 this equation gives the limiting

value of CpSN for large values of M as
1.839. Assuming a perfect gas and a large
freestream Mach number, the modified
Newtonian theory gives:

C p 1.839 sin
2

As discussed in the first section of this

chapter, when the Mach number is very
large, the temperature behind the normal
shock wave in the stagnation point region
becomes so large that high-temperature gas
effects become important and these affect
the value of CpSN .
The relation between the perfect gas normal
shock results, the normal shock results with
high-temperature effects accounted for and
the Newtonian result is illustrated by the
typical results shown in the following figure.

Typical variation of stagnation point pressure coefficient

with mach number.

The results shown in the above figure

and similar results for other situations
indicate that the stagnation pressure
coefficient given by the high Mach number
form of the normal shock relations for a
perfect gas applies for Mach numbers above
about 5 and that it gives results that are
within 5% of the actual values up to Mach
numbers in excess of 10. Therefore, the
modified Newtonian equation using the
high-Mach number limit of the perfect gas
normal shock to give the stagnation point
pressure coefficient will give results that are
of adequate accuracy for values of M up to
more than 10.

At higher values of M , the unmodified

Newtonian equation gives more accurate
results. Of course, the modified Newtonian
equation with the stagnation pressure
coefficient
determined
using
hightemperature normal shock results will apply
at all hypersonic Mach numbers.

It should be noted that:

p p
1 2 2
C pS
V sin
p
2 p
i.e. again using:

p
a

gives:

p p
2 2
C pS M sin
p
2
i.e.:

p
2 2
1 C pS M sin
p
2

CONCLUDING REMARKS:
In hypersonic flow, because the
temperatures are very high and because
the shock waves lie close to the surface,
the flow field is complex. However, because
the flow behind the shock waves is all
essentially parallel to the surface, the
pressure variation along a surface in a
hypersonic flow can be easily estimated
using the Newtonian model. The calculation
of drag forces on bodies in hypersonic flow
using this method has been discussed.

Centrifugal force on a fluid element

moving along a curved streamline.

Shock layer model for centrifugal

force corrections to Newtonian theory.

Illustration of the tangent-wedge method.

Illustration of the tangent-cone method.

UNIT - III
Viscous Hypersonic Flow Theory

Boundary layer equation for hypersonic flow

2-D continuity
Eqn
Boundary layer is very thin in comparison with the scale
of the body
2-D continuity Eqn in non dimensional form
Because u varies from 0 at the wall to 1 at the
edge of the boundary layer, let us say that i7
is of the order of magnitude equal to I,
symbolized by 0A). Similarly,
i> = 0A). Also, since x varies from 0 to c, x =
0A). However, since y varies from 0 to <5,
where E < t, then v is of the smaller order of
magnitude, denoted by
y = 0(<5/c). Without loss of generality, we can
assume that c is a unit length. Therefore, y =

The boundary layer x-momentum

equation in terms of the transformed independent variables.

f is a stream function related to

Transformed boundary layer x-momentum equation for a

twodimensional, compressible flow.

The boundary layer y-momentum equation,

becomes in the transformed space

The boundary layer energy equation can also be transformed.

Defining a non dimensional static enthalpy as
where he is (the static enthalpy at the boundary layer edge, and
utilizing the same transformation as before

Qualitative sketches of non similar boundary layer profiles.

STRONG AND WEAK VISCOUS INTERACTIONS:

DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Consider the sketch shown in Fig. which illustrates the hypersonic
viscous
flow over a flat plate. Two regions of viscous interaction are illustrated
here
the strong interaction region immediately downstream of the leading
edge, and the weak interaction region further downstream. By definition,
the strong interaction region is one where the following physical effects
occur:

This mutual interaction process, where the boundary layer substantially

affects
the inviscid flow, which in turn substantially affects the boundary layer, is
called
a strong viscous interaction, as sketched in Fig.

Illustration of strong and weak viscous

The similarity parameter that governs laminar viscous interactions, both

strong and weak, is "chi bar," defined as

Schematic of the shock-wave/boundary-layer

interaction.

THE NATURE OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE FLOWS

1. The thermodynamic properties (e, h, p, T, p, s, etc.) are completely
different.
2. The transport properties ( and k) are completely different. Moreover,
the
additional transport mechanism of diffusion becomes important, with the
associated diffusion coefficients, Di,j.
3. High heat transfer rates are usually a dominant aspect of any hightemperahigh-temperature application.
4. The ratio of specific heats, = CP/CV, is a variable. In fact, for the
analysis of
high-temperature flows, loses the importance it has for the classical
constant
flows.
5. In view of the above, virtually all analyses of high temperature gas
flows
require some type of numerical, rather than closed-form, solutions.
6. If the temperature is high enough to cause ionization, the gas becomes
a
partially ionized plasma, which has a finite electrical conductivity. In turn,
if
the flow is in the presence of an exterior electric or magnetic field, then

CHEMICAL EFFECTS IN AIR: THE VELOCITY-ALTITUDE MAP

Ranges of vibrational excitation, dissociation, and

ionization for air at I-aim pressure.

Velocity-amplitude map with superimposed regions of vibrational

excitation, dissociation, and ionization.