BIOTECHNOLOGY

Principles, Applications,
and Social Implications

General Definition
The application of technology to
improve a biological organism

Detailed Definition
The application of the
technology to modify the
biological function of an
organism to produce
useful usually commercial

These definitions imply biotechnology

is needed because:
Nature has a rich source of variation
Here we see bean has many
seedcoat colors and patterns
in nature

But we know nature does not have

all of the traits we need

But nature does not contain all the

genetic variation man desires

Fruits with vaccines

Grains with improved nutrition

DNA and Genetic Engineering

GENOMICS

Genomics
the study of genomes
a
broad
field
that
encompasses whole-genome
comparisons,
structural
analysis of gene products,
and surveys of small-scale
variations in sequence

DNA Profiling
identifying an individual by
analyzing the unique parts of
his or her DNA

Short tandem
repeats

in
chromosomal
DNA,
sequence of 4 to 5 bases
repeated multiple times in a
row

DNA Cloning

uses living cells to

mass-produce particular
DNA fragments

Recombinant DNA
a DNA molecule that
contains
genetic
material
from
more
than one organism

Restriction
enzyme
type of enzyme that
cuts specific nucleotide
sequences in DNA

Cloning vector
a DNA molecule that
can accept foreign DNA
and
get
replicated
inside a host cell

Genetic
Engineering

process by which deliberate

changes are introduced into
an individuals genome.

Genetically modified
organism (GMO)
organism whose genome
has been modified by
genetic engineering

Transgenic
refers
to
a
genetically
modified
organism
that
carries a gene from a
different species

Gene therapy
the transfer of recombinant
DNA into an individuals
body cells, with the intent
to correct a genetic defect
or treat a disease.

Gene therapy is the use

of DNA as a drug to treat
disease by delivering
therapeutic DNA into a
patient's cells. The most
common form of gene
therapy involves using
DNA that encodes a
functional, therapeutic
gene to replace a

In gene therapy, DNA must

be administered to the
patient, get to the cells that
need repair, enter the cell,
and express a protein.
Generally the DNA is
incorporated into an
engineered virus that serves
as a vector, to get the DNA
through the bloodstream, into

Severe Combined
Immunodeficiency Disorder (SCID)

a severe x-linked genetic

disorder due to mutated
allele; infected individuals
can survive only in germ-free
environment
due
to
impairment of the immune
system

ANTIBIOTICS

SOME GENERAL
PRINCIPLES
Antibiotics can be naturally
produced, semi-synthetic, or
synthetic substances
Designed to have as much
selective toxicity on the
bacteria as possible

EXAMPLES OF SELECTIVE
ACTION
Penicillin on bacterial cell wall
(organisms without cell wall wont be
inhibited
eg
Mycoplasma
pneumoniae)
Sulphonamides
prevent
bacteria
synthesising folic acid whereas
humans can use preformed folate
Generally drugs acting on cell
membranes or protein synthesis are
more toxic to humans

ANTIBIOTICS ACTING ON CELL WALL

OF BACTERIA
Beta lactams:
Penicillins, cephalosporins,
carbapenems, monobactam
Glycopeptides:
Vancomycin, teicoplanin

PENICILLIN
They act by inhibition of bacterial cell
wall synthesis, thus exposing the
osmotically less stable membrane
These agents are bactericidal
Active against multiplying and not
resting
bacteria;
inactive
against
mycobacteria, protozoa, fungi and
viruses

Penicillin G (Benzyl penicillin)

Highest activity against Gram-positive
susceptible to Beta-lactamase.

organisms

Effective against :
Gram-positive aerobic cocci
- Staph. aureus- not producing penicillinase,
S.pneumoniae ( group A ) ,S.pyogenes
Gram-negative aerobic cocci -N.meningitidis
Gram- positive bacilli : Bacillus anthracis
Anaerobes
Clostridium spp but inactive against B.fragilis
Actinomycetes israelii ( actinomycosis )

but

Penicillin G benzathin
Duration 3- 4 weeks
Painful at the injection site ( limits its
use )
Uses
1. Syphilis
2. Rheumatic fever prophylaxis( inhibits
group A beta- hemolytic streptococci)
3. Streptococcal pharyngitis

Disadvantages of penicillin G
A. Destroyed by gastric HCL
B. Inactivated by penicillinase
C. Narrow spectrum of activity

Phenoxy- methyl penicillin

( penicillin V)
Acid resistant penicillins
( spectrum of activity is similar to
penicillin G )

Uses
Group A Streptococcal pharyngitis
Prophylaxis against group A streptococci in
points with history of rheumatic heart
disease.

Disadvantages
Readily hydroyzed by beta-lactamase

Penicillinase-resistant
penicillins

Are the choice

for infections
caused by
penicillinase
producing S.
aureus.

Methicillin
Dicloxacillin
Floxacillin
NafcIlli
Oxacillin
Cloxacillin

Broad- spectrum penicillins

Less active than
penicillin G
against G+
cocci. Active
against Gorganisms.

Ampicillin
Ampicillinsulbactam
Bacampicillin
Amoxicillin
Amoxicillinclavulanic acid
( augmentin )

USES
H. Influenza infections (otitis media,
sinusitis, chronic bronchitis,
pneumonia, bacterial meningitis ).
E. Coli infections (Urinary & biliary
infections)
Samonella infections (typhoid fever)
Shigella infections (ampicillin)
Gonococcal infections (alternative
for penicillin in the treatment of
gonorrhea)

DISADVANTAGES
Amoxicillin & ampicillin alone are
readily
destroyed
by
Staph.
Penicillinase

Adverse effects of
penicillins
1.Hypersensitivity reactions Urticarial
rash
Fever
Bronchspasm
Serum sickness
Exfoliative dermatitis
Stevens- Johnson syndrome
Anaphylaxis
2. Super infections
3. Diarrhoea
4. May cause convulsions after high
doses by i.v or in renal failure

Some clinically important antibiotics

Antibiotic

Producer organism

Activity

Site or mode of
action

Penicillin

Penicillium chrysogenum

Gram-positive
bacteria

Wall synthesis

Cephalosporin

Cephalosporium
acremonium

Broad spectrum

Wall synthesis

Erythromycin

Streptomyces erythreus

Streptomycin

Streptomyces griseus

Tetracycline

Streptomyces rimosus

Broad spectrum

Protein synthesis

Vancomycin

Streptomyces orientalis

Gram-positive
bacteria

Protein synthesis

Gram-positive
bacteria
Gram-negative
bacteria

Protein synthesis
Protein synthesis

THE IDEAL
ANTIBIOTIC?:PENICILLIN
Bactericidal
Widely distributed in body esp. CNS
Excreted by the kidneys