CEVE 101

Fluid Mechanics 2
The Bernoulli Equation
Dr. Phil Bedient

FLUID DYNAMICS
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve

Dynamic Problems. There is no way to solve for the flow
rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach
to Fluid Mechanics.

The Bernoulli Equation

By assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and
gravity forces, applying Newtons second law, F = ma, leads us to
the Bernoulli Equation.

P/ + V2/2g + z = constant along a streamline

(P=pressure =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity
z=elevation)

A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at

any two points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can
be applied and, using a set of engineering assumptions,
unknown flows and pressures can easily be solved for.

The Bernoulli Equation (unit of L)

At any two points on a streamline:

P1/ + V12/2g + z1 = P2/ + V22/2g + z2

1

A Simple Bernoulli Example

= air

V2
Z

Determine the difference in pressure between points 1 and 2

Assume a coordinate system fixed to the bike (from this system,
the bicycle is stationary, and the world moves past it). Therefore,
the air is moving at the speed of the bicycle. Thus, V 2 = Velocity of
the Biker
Hint: Point 1 is called a stagnation point, because the air particle
along that streamline, when it hits the bikers face, has a zero
velocity (see next slide)

Stagnation Points

On any body in a flowing fluid, there is a stagnation point.

Some fluid flows over and some under the body. The dividing
line (the stagnation streamline) terminates at the stagnation
point. The Velocity decreases as the fluid approaches the
stagnation point. The pressure at the stagnation point is the
pressure obtained when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero
speed by a frictionless process

Apply Bernoulli from 1 to 2

V2

= air

Point 1 = Point 2
P1/ air + V12/2g + z1 = P2/ air + V22/2g + z2

Knowing the z1 = z2 and that V1= 0, we can simplify

the equation
P1/ air = P2/ air + V22/2g
P1 P2 = ( V22/2g ) air

A Simple Bernoulli Example

If Lance Armstrong is traveling at 20 ft/s, what
pressure does he feel on his face if the air= .0765
lbs/ft3?
We can assume P2 = 0 because it is only atmospheric pressure
P1 = ( V22/2g )(air) = P1 = ((20 ft/s)2/(2(32.2 ft/s2)) x .0765 lbs/ft3
P1 =.475 lbs/ft2
Converting to lbs/in2 (psi)
P1 = .0033 psi (gage pressure)
If the bikers face has a surface area of 60 inches
He feels a force of .0033 x 60 = .198 lbs

Bernoulli Assumptions
There are three main variables in the Bernoulli
Equation Pressure Velocity Elevation
To simplify problems, assumptions are often made
to eliminate one or more variables

Key Assumption # 1
Velocity = 0
Imagine a swimming pool with a small 1 cm hole on the
floor of the pool. If you apply the Bernoulli equation at
the surface, and at the hole, we assume that the volume
exiting through the hole is trivial compared to the total
volume of the pool, and therefore the Velocity of a water
particle at the surface can be assumed to be zero

Bernoulli Assumptions
Key Assumption # 2
Pressure = 0
Whenever the only pressure acting on a
point is the standard atmospheric pressure,
then the pressure at that point can be
assumed to be zero because every point in
the system is subject to that same pressure.
Therefore, for any free surface or free jet,
pressure at that point can be assumed to be
zero.

Bernoulli Assumptions
Key Assumption # 3
The Continuity Equation
In cases where one or both of the
previous assumptions do not apply,
then we might need to use the
continuity equation to solve the
problem
A1V1=A2V2
Which satisfies that inflow and
outflow are equal at any section

Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets

What is the Flow Rate at point 2? What is the velocity at
Givens and Assumptions: point 3?
Because the tank is so large, we assume V1 = 0 (Volout <<<
Voltank)
The tank is open at both ends, thus
P1 = P2 = P3 = atm
P1 and P2 and P3= 0

Part 1:
Apply Bernoullis eqn between points 1
and 2

1
H2O

P1/H2O + V12/2g + h = P2/H20 + V22/2g +

0
simplifies to

A2 2
3

h = V22/2g solving for V

V = (2gh)

Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets

Part 2: Find V3?
Apply Bernoullis eq from pt 1 to pt 3
P1/H2O + V12/2g + h = P3/H20 + V32/2g H
Simplify to h + H = V32/2g

Solving for V V3 =

H2O

A2 2
3

Z=0

( 2g ( h + H ))

The Continuity Equation

Why does a hose with a nozzle shoot water further?
Conservation of Mass:
In a confined system, all of the mass that enters the system, must
also exit the system at the same time.
Flow rate = Q = Area x Velocity

1A1V1(mass inflow rate) = 2A2V2( mass outflow rate)

V1 ->

A1

A2 V2 ->

Q2 = A2V2
Q1 = A1V1

A1V1 = A2V2

If the fluid at both points is

the same, then the density
drops out, and you get the
continuity equation:
A1V1 =A2V2
Therefore
If A2 < A1 then V2 > V1
Thus, water exiting a nozzle
has a higher velocity

Free Jets

The velocity of a jet of water is clearly related to the depth of

water above the hole. The greater the depth, the higher the
velocity. Similar behavior can be seen as water flows at a very
high velocity from the reservoir behind a large dam such as
Hoover Dam

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade

Line equation again:
Looking at the Bernoulli
P/ + V2/2g + z = constant on a streamline
This constant is called the total head (energy), H
Because energy is assumed to be conserved, at any point
along the streamline, the total head is always constant
Each term in the Bernoulli equation is a type of head.
P/ = Pressure Head
V2/2g = Velocity Head
Z = elevation head
These three heads summed equals H = total energy
Next we will look at this graphically

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade

Line
Measures the
static
pressure

Pitot
measures the
total head

2
EL

V2/2g

HGL

P/

1: Static Pressure Tap

Measures the sum of
the elevation head and
the pressure Head.
2: Pitot Tube
Measures the Total
Head
EL : Energy Line
Total Head along a
system

HGL : Hydraulic Grade

line

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade

Understanding the graphical Line
approach
of Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade line is key to understanding
what forces are supplying the energy
that water holds.
V2/2g

EL
V2/2g

HGL

2
P/

P/

1
Z

Point 1:

Majority of energy
stored in the water is
in the Pressure Head
Point 2:
Majority of energy
stored in the water is
in the elevation head
If the tube was
symmetrical, then the
velocity would be
constant, and the
HGL would be level

Tank Example
Solve for the Pressure Head, Velocity Head, and Elevation Head
at each point, and then plot the Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line
Assumptions and Hints:
P1 and P4 = 0 --- V3 = V4 same diameter tube
We must work backwards to solve this problem

R=.
5

R = .25

4
1

Point 1:
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric P1/ = 0
Velocity Head : In a large tank, V1 = 0 V12/2g = 0
Elevation Head : Z1 = 4

1
4

R=.
5

R = .25

4
1

Point 4:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 4
0 + 0 + 4 = 0 + V42/2(32.2) + 1
V4 = 13.9 ft/s
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric P4/ = 0
Velocity Head : V42/2g = 3
Elevation Head : Z4 = 1

1
4

H2O= 62.4
lbs/ft3
R=.
R = .25
5

4
1

Point 3:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 3 and 4 (V3=V4)
P3/62.4 + 3 + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
P3 = 0
Pressure Head : P3/ = 0
Velocity Head : V32/2g = 3
Elevation Head : Z3 = 1

1
4

R=.
5

R = .25

4
1

Point 2:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 2 and 3
P2/62.4 + V22/2(32.2) + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
Apply the Continuity Equation
(.52)V2 = (.252)x13.9 V2 = 3.475 ft/s
P2/62.4 + 3.4752/2(32.2) + 1 = 4 P2 = 175.5 lbs/ft2
Pressure Head :
P2/ = 2.81

1
4

R=.
5

Velocity Head :
V22/2g = .19

R = .25

4
1

Elevation Head :
Z2 = 1

Plotting the EL and HGL

Energy Line = Sum of the Pressure, Velocity and Elevation
heads
Hydraulic Grade Line = Sum of the Pressure and Velocity
heads
V2/2g=.19

EL
P/

=2.81

V2/2g=3 V2/2g=3

Z=4

HGL
Z=1

Z=1

Z=1

CEVE 101

Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow

Open Channel Flow

Uniform Open Channel Flow is the hydraulic condition
in which the water depth and the channel cross
section do not change over some reach of the channel
Mannings Equation was developed to relate flow and
channel geometry to water depth. Knowing Q in a
channel, one can solve for the water depth Y. Knowing
the maximum allowable depth Y, one can solve for Q.

Open Channel Flow

Mannings equation is only accurate for cases where the cross
sections of a stream or channel are uniform. Mannings
equation works accurately for man made channels, but for
natural streams and rivers, it can only be used as an
approximation.

Mannings Equation
Terms in the Mannings equation:
V = Channel Velocity
A = Cross sectional area of the channel
P = Wetted perimeter of the channel
R = Hydraulic Radius = A/P
S = Slope of the channel bottom (ft/ft or m/m)
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (.015, .045, .
12)
Yn = Normal depth (depth of uniform flow)

Area

Yn
Y

Wetted Perimeter

X
Slope = S = Y/X

Mannings Equation
V = (1/n)R2/3(S)

for the metric system

V = (1.49/n)R2/3(S)

for the English system

Q = A(k/n)R2/3(S)

k is either 1 or 1.49

Yn is not directly a part of Mannings equation. However, A and

R depend on Yn. Therefore, the first step to solving any
Mannings equation problem, is to solve for the geometrys
cross sectional area and wetted perimeter:
For a rectangular Channel
Yn
B

Area = A = B x Yn
Wetted Perimeter = P = B + 2Yn
Hydraulic Radius = A/P = R = BYn/

Simple Mannings Example

A rectangular open concrete (n=0.015) channel is to be
designed to carry a flow of 2.28 m3/s. The slope is 0.006 m/m
and the bottom width of the channel is 2 meters.
Determine the normal depth that will
occur find
in this
First,
A,channel.
P and R
A = 2Yn

P = 2 + 2Yn

R = 2Yn/(2 + 2Yn)

Next, apply Mannings equation

Q = A(1/n)R2/3(S)
2.28 = (2Yn)x(1/0.015) * (2Yn/(2 + 2Yn))2/3 * (0.006)

Yn
2m

Solving for Yn with Goal Seek

Yn = 0.47 meters

The Trapezoidal Channel

House flooding occurs along Brays Bayou when
water overtops the banks. What flow is allowable
in Brays Bayou if it has the geometry shown below?

Slope
S = 0.001
ft/ft
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015

25

a = 20

B=35

A, P and R for Trapezoidal Channels

A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)

Yn

P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
R = (Yn(B + Yn cot a)) / (B + (2Yn/sin

The Trapezoidal Channel

Slope
S = 0.0003 ft/ft

25

Concrete Lined
n = 0.015

35

= 20

A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)
A = 25( 35 + 25 cot(20)) = 2592 ft2
P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
P = 35 + (2 x 25/sin(20)) = 181.2 ft
R = 2592 / 181.2 = 14.3 ft

The Trapezoidal Channel

Slope
S = 0.0003
ft/ft
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015

25

= 20

35

Q for Bayou = A(1.49/n)R2/3(S)

Q = 2592 x (1.49 / .015) (14.3)2/3 (.0003)

Q = Max allowable Flow = 26,300 cfs

Mannings Over Different Terrains

S = .005
ft/ft
5

5
3

Grass
n=.0
3

Concrete
n=.015

Grass
n=.0
3

Estimate the flow rate for the above channel?

Hint:
Treat each different portion of the channel separately.
You must find an A, R, P and Q for each section of the
channel that has a different n coefficient. Neglect
dotted line segments.

Mannings Over Grass

S = .005
ft/ft
5

5
3

Grass
n=.0
3

Concrete
n=.015

Grass
n=.0
3

The Grassy portions:

For each section:
A = 5 x 3 = 15 ft2

P = 5 + 3 = 8 ft
= 1.88 ft

R = 15 ft2/8 ft

Q = 15(1.49/.03)1.882/3(.005)
Q = 80.24 cfs per section For both sections

Mannings Over Concrete

S = .005
ft/ft
5

5
3

Grass
n=.0
3

Concrete
n=.015

Grass
n=.0
3

The Concrete section

A = 5 x 6 = 30 ft2 P = 5 + 3 + 3= 11 ft
30 ft2/11 ft = 2.72 ft

Q = 30(1.49/.015)2.722/3(.005)
Q = 410.6 cfs
For the entire channel

R=

Pipe Flow and the Energy

Equation

For pipe flow, the Bernoulli equation alone is not sufficient.

Friction loss along the pipe, and momentum loss through
diameter changes and corners take head (energy) out of a
system that theoretically conserves energy. Therefore, to
correctly calculate the flow and pressures in pipe systems, the
Bernoulli Equation must be modified.

P1/ + V12/2g + z1 =
P2/ + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin
Energy line with no
losses

Hmaj

Energy line with major

losses
1

Major Losses

Major losses occur over the entire pipe, as the

friction of the fluid over the pipe walls
removes energy from the system. Each type
of pipe as a friction factor, f, associated with
it.
Hmaj = f (L/D)(V2/2g)
Energy line with no
losses

Hmaj

Energy line with major

losses
1

Minor Losses
Unlike major losses, minor losses do not occur over the length
of the pipe, but only at points of momentum loss. Since Minor
losses occur at unique points along a pipe, to find the total
minor loss throughout a pipe, sum all of the minor losses along
the pipe. Each type of bend, or narrowing has a loss
coefficient, KL to go with it.

Minor
Losses

Major and Minor Losses

Major Losses:
Hmaj = f (L/D)(V2/2g)
f = friction factor L = pipe length D = pipe diameter
V = Velocity g = gravity

Minor Losses:
Hmin = KL(V2/2g)
Kl = sum of loss coefficients V = Velocity g = gravity
When solving problems, the loss terms are added to the system
at the second analysis point

P1/ + V12/2g + z1 =
P2/ + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin

Loss Coefficients

Pipe Flow Example

1

Z1 = ?

oil= 8.82 kN/m3

f = .035

60 m
7m
r/D = 0

Z2 = 130
m
Kout=1

130 m
r/D = 2

If oil flows from the upper to lower reservoir at a

velocity of 1.58 m/s in the D= 15 cm smooth pipe,
what is the elevation of the oil surface in the upper
reservoir?
Include major losses along the pipe, and the minor
losses associated with the entrance, the two bends,
and the outlet.

Pipe Flow Example

1

Z1 = ?
Z2 = 130
m
Kout=1

60 m
7m
r/D = 0

130 m
r/D = 2

Apply Bernoullis equation between points 1 and 2:

Assumptions: P1 = P2 = Atmospheric = 0
V1 = V2 = 0 (large
tank)
0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin
Hmaj = (f L V2)/(D 2g)=(.035 x 197m * (1.58m/s)2)/(.15 x 2 x
9.8m/s2)
H

= 5.85m

Pipe Flow Example

1

Z1 = ?
Z2 = 130
m
Kout=1

60 m
7m
r/D = 0

130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + Hmin

Hmin= 2KbendV2/2g + KentV2/2g + KoutV2/2g
From Loss Coefficient table: Kbend = 0.19 Kent = 0.5
Hmin = (0.19x2 + 0.5 + 1) * (1.582/2*9.8)
Hmin = 0.24 m

Kout = 1

Pipe Flow Example

1

Z1 = ?
Z2 = 130
m
Kout=1

60 m
7m
r/D = 0

130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + 0.24m

Z1 = 136.1 meters

Stormwater Mgt Model

(SWWM)

Most advanced model ever written for

dynamic hydraulic routing

Solves complex equations for pipe flow

with consideration of tailwater at outlet

New graphical user interface for easy

input and presentation of results

Will allow for direct evaluation of flood

control options under various conditions

SWMM Input
Rainfall
Pattern
Pipe
Elevations
and Sizes

Junction
Locations

Inlets to Pipes

Bayou Level

SWMM Output
Flooding Areas

p
Pi

High Bayou
Level

ea
ac
ap
tC
it y

Backflow
at Outlet