2.

11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests

Some of the reasons for carrying

out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).

Typical
repairs

Temporary lifting for repair

Some of the reasons for carrying

out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).

Skyline Plaza
Apartments
March 2, 1973

Probable Cause of Failure

Premature removal of formwork
Concrete 4 days old
Average ambient temperature 7 C

The were no specification requirements

for in-place concrete strength for safe
removal of formwork.

Willow Island, West

Virginia Cooling Tower
Tower 1 completed
in August 1977

Lift 28

Construction of
Tower 2 halted in
Fall of 1977
1.5-m lifts

State of Construction
at Time of Failure
Lift 28 cast previous
day
Concrete bucket going
up
Cracking sound
Gantry #4 tilts inward

GANTRY 4

April 26

51 Fatalities

Conclusions from the

two accidents
Failure was a result of inadequate concrete
strength to support applied construction
loads
Failure could have been prevented had inplace tests been used to assess strength of
previous lift

Some of the reasons for carrying

out assessments
To determine the nature of repairs. In this instance there
are always visible signs of deterioration, e.g. cracking.
To decide the value of a building when it is being sold
or insured.
To determine the expected remaining useful life of a
building when refurbishment or change of use is being
considered.
To determine the ability of the structure to take an
increased loading.
Routine safety inspection (e.g. road bridges).

Planning the investigation

Do not be over ambitious, a few tests clearly analysed
and reported on time are far more use than a mass of
data.
Ensure that adequate control areas are used. Almost all of
the tests are comparative so there must be some results
from sound areas to compare with the suspect areas.
Where possible carry out the tests on a accurately
measured grid.
Try to decide on a method of analysis and presentation
before work starts.

Plan your
access

Planning the investigation

Do not be over ambitious, a few tests clearly analysed
and reported on time are far more use than a mass of
data.
Ensure that adequate control areas are used. Almost all of
the tests are comparative so there must be some results
from sound areas to compare with the suspect areas.
Where possible carry out the tests on a accurately
measured grid.
Try to decide on a method of analysis and presentation
before work starts.

2.11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Measurement
of crack width

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Ultrasonic
Testing

Portable
Ultrasonic
Non-Destructive
Digital
Indicating
Tester

Pressure waves in a solid

(see section 1.4)

(1 + )(1 - 2)

E=v d

(1 - )

E = Young's modulus
v = pulse velocity
d = density
= Poisson's ratio

Arrangement
Direct
T

Most
Reliable

Semi-Direct

Surface
T

Least
Reliable

Ultrasonic testing

Our Ultrasonic Test Machine

Indirect
measurements
(also use graph for
semi-direct)

Ultrasound at crack

Ultrasonic
Through
Transmission
Presence of "defects"
increases travel time
(lower speed)

Surface Method
Determine depth of interface, d
Requires faster wave speed in bottom layer
Measure travel time as a function of distance, X,
between transducers
X
Transmitter

d=?

Receiver
Path 1
Path 2

Damaged concrete
Vd
Sound concrete
Vs

Layer thickness measurement

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Cover
meters

Cover meters 2 different types

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Lock/release
button

Rod

Push down

Push Body

Body
Latch
Slider
Hammer
Spring
Rod

Operation
Hammer
Released

Rebound

Slider
Rebound number = 41

Near-surface Effects

Aggregate

Air void

Rough

Dry or
Carbonation

Digital rebound hammer

Charts for
our rebound
hammers

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Impact echo test

Impact

Receiver

Incident Ray
Reflected Ray

Incident
Front
Reflected
Front

Impact-Echo Method
Force

Displacement

Time

Time
Contact
time

Flaw

Field Testing System

Impact Echo Applications

Voids or honeycombing
Delaminations (at reinforcement,
asphalt/concrete interface, overlay, repair)
Depth of surface-opening cracks
Member thickness (ASTM C 1383)
Voids in grouted tendon ducts

Impact Echo
Limitations

Detection is difficult when:

Deep Defect
Overlay

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Coring Machines

Recovered Cores
Concrete

Semi-dry
paste/grout

Trailer mounted coring machine

Sawing concrete

CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.

Strengths obtained from core tests

CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.

Chop saw for cutting core ends

CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be
ground or capped before testing. The quality of the
result is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.

Flow of water in
core cutting

CORE TESTS
Fig 2.11.6. shows typical strengths. Do not expect
to get the target mean.
Cores are tested on end so the ends must be ground
or capped before testing. The quality of the result
is only as good as the quality of this work.
Always use plenty of water or the core bit will be
damaged.
If carrying out chemical tests on the core
remember that the cutting water will have washed
out some chlorides etc from near the core surface.
Use a cover meter to locate the steel and try to
avoid it.

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Pull-out test (1)

Pull out test (2)

Pull out tests

(3)

Pull-out tests (in

our lab)

Physical Tests

Measurement of crack width

Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Cover meters
Rebound hammers
Impact echo
Core tests
Pull out tests
Load tests

Structural load testing

Yield

Plastic

Failure

If this is the unloading

curve the structure has
been overloaded

Stress

Strain

2.11 ASSESSMENT OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
2.11.1 Planning
2.11.2 Test methods
Physical Tests
Durability Tests

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

ISAT apparatus

ISAT
Test

Capillary & Scale

Close valve at
specified intervals
from start of test
Measure rate of
absorption

Reservoir
Valve

Cap
Seal

80 mm

200 5mm

ISAT flow rates

Flow = A * Time-N
Flow

Time

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

Figg Air
Permeabilit
y
Test
Apply vacuum to

prescribed pressure
Close value and
measure time for
pressure to increase
to prescribed value

Pressure Gage

Vacuum

Plug
20 mm
20 mm
10 mm

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

Half-Cell Potential Method

ASTM C 876
-0.28
Connection to bar
Voltmeter
_
+
Cu-CuSO4 half
cell

Copper rod
CuSO4 solution
Sponge
Porous plug

Potential
survey
and
resistivity

ASTM C876 Classification for

corrosion detection
Measured potential (CSE)
more negative than -350mV
-200 to -350mV
Less negative than -200mV

Statistical
risk of corrosion
90%
50%
10%

Contours from
potential
survey

POTENTIAL MAPPING
Potential mapping is quick, non-destructive, and
cheap. Large areas may be covered.
The results must be treated with caution. For
example carbonation increases concrete resistivity
and therefore increases apparent rest potential.
The results only indicate that corrosion is possible
and give no information about corrosion rates.
Prestressing cables in ducts cannot be
tested

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

4-Probe Method by Wenner

A.C. source

2sV
=
I

Ammeter, I
Voltmeter, V

Probes

Equipotential lines

Current lines

Concrete resistivity measurement

Significance of concrete resistivity

to likelihood of corrosion
Resistivity Cm

Likelihood of significant
corrosion

very high
high
low/moderate
low

<5000
5000-10000
10000-20000
>20000

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

The ASTM Chloride Permeability

insitu test (measures electromigration)
Sodium
chloride

0 Volts

Chloride
ions

Reinforcing
bar

+60 volts
Current is
measured

The ASTM Chloride Permeability

test on a recovered core
0 Volts

Sodium
chloride

+60 volts
Chloride
ions

Sodium
hydroxide

Modified ASTM
Chloride Permeability
test

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

Phenolphthalein
Test

Durability Tests

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Figg Test
Water penetration test
Potential Mapping
Resistivity Tests
Linear Polarisation
Coulomb Test
Phenolphthalein Test
Other tests

X-ray
apparatus

RADA
R

Electromagnetic equivalent of
SONAR

Antenna

V=

= dielectric constant
C = speed in air

9-mm and 35-mm Bars at Three Depths

300 mm spacing
50, 100, 150 mm cover

9 mm
50

100

35 mm
150

50

100

150

Infra-Red
Camera
Surveys

Cold Spot

Outward
Heat Flow
(cooling)
Hot Spot
Inward
Heat Flow
(heating)

IR Camera

Photo of bridge
deck

Expansion Joint

IR Image