Prof (Dr) B Dayal

Prof (Dr) B
Dayal

BASIC EQUATIONS
THE GENERAL EQUATION
M . ax = - WDx / g = - Fxf Fxr DA W sin
Where,
W = vehicle weight
Dx = -ax = linear deceleration
Fxf = front axle braking force
Fxr = rear axle braking force
DA = Aerodynamic drag
= gradient
CONSTANT DECELERATION
Dx = Fxt / M = - dV/dt
Where Fxt = the total of all longitudinal deceleration forces on
vehicle
V = forward velocity

the

BASIC EQUATIONS
VfV0 dV = -Fxt / M(ts0 dt
V0 - Vf = Fxt . Ts / M
Where,

ts = time for velocity change

Vo2 Vf2 = 2Fxt . X / M

Where X = distance travelled during the deceleration.

If vehicle comes to full stop Vf = 0
Or
SD = V02/ (2Fxt/M) = V02 / 2Dx
The time to stop:
ts = V0 / (Fxt / M) = V0 / Dx

BASIC EQUATIONS
Deceleration with wind resistance.
DA = . A . V2 . Cd / 2
Or
DA = CV2
Thus Fx = Fb + C V2
Where Fb = total brake force of front and rear wheels
C = aerodynamic drag factor
Therefore,
SD0 dx = M0V0 [VdV / (Fb + CV2)]
SD = (M / 2C) . Ln[(Fb + CV02) / Fb]
Energy / power
The energy absorbed is the KE of motion
Energy = M(V02 Vf2) / 2
power absorption = M V02 / 2ts

BRAKING FORCES
The brakes are the primary source of force available for deceleration.
Other sources for deceleration are:
Rolling resistance
Always opposes vehicle motion. Hence, adds to the braking.
Rxf + Rxr = fr (Wf + Wr) = frW
fr = specific rolling resistance or rolling resistance coefficient

Aerodynamic drag
DA = . A . V2 . Cd / 2
Grade
Rg = W sin for small angles: Rg = W
Driveline drag. Arises from bearing and gear friction in the
transmission and differential and engine braking. Engine braking is
equivalent to the motoring torque. On a manual transmission with
clutch engaged, , the engine braking is multiplied by the gear ratio. In
automatic transmission, engine drag does not contribute significantly.

DRUM BRAKES AND DISC

BRAKES

This is a typical brake system showing all typical components. These

are known as service brakes, base brakes, or foundation brakes.

Typical disc
brake assembly.
Disc brakes are
used on the front
of most vehicles
built since the
early 1970s and
on the rear
wheels of many
vehicles.

Courtesy of Wagner Division, Cooper Industries Inc.

BRAKE FACTOR
The brake factor is a mechanical advantage that can be utilised in
drum brakes to minimize the actuation efforts required.
Mp = e Pa + n NA m NA = 0
Where,
e = perpendicular distance from
actuation force to pivot
NA = normal force between lining
and brake drum
Pa = actuation force utilised
n = perpendicular distance from
lining friction force to pivot
m = perpendicular distance from
the normal force to the pivot

FORCES ACTING ON THE SHOES

OF A SIMPLE DRUM BRAKE

BRAKE FACTOR
The friction force developed by each brake shoe is:
FA = NA
and
FB = NB
therefore,
FA / Pa = e / (m n)
And
FB / Pa = e / (m + n)
In the leading shoe, the moment produced by the friction force on
the shoe acts to rotate it against the drum and increase the friction
force developed. Ths self-servo action yields a mechanical
advantage characterised as the brake factor.
If is too large
m = n
and brake factor = , the brkae
will lock.
In trailing shoe the friction force acts to reduce the application force.
The brake factor is too low.

INERTIA DYNAMOMETER
TORQUE MEASUREMENTS

BRAKE PROPORTIONING
Brake proportioning is adjustment of brake torque output at front and
rear wheels in accordance with the peak traction forces available.
The aim of brake proportioning is to bring both axles up to the lock up
point simultaneously.
the first order determnants of peak traction force on an axle are:
The instantaneous load
The peak coefficient of friction.
During braking, a dynamic load transfer from the rear to the front axle
occurs such that the load on an axle is the static plusthe dynamic
l;oad transfer contributions.
Thus, for a deceleration Dx:
Wf = cW / L + hW Dx / Lg = Wfs + Wd
And

Wr = bW / L - hW Dx / Lg = Wrs - Wd

BRAKE PROPORTIONING
Where,
Wfs = front axle static load
Wrs = rear axle static load
Wd = hW Dx / Lg = Dynamic load transfer
Then on each axle the maximum brake force
Fxmf = Wf = p (Wfs + hW Dx / Lg)
(1)
And Fxmr = Wr = p (Wrs - hW Dx / Lg) (2)
Where
p = peak coefficient of friction
Dx = (Fxmf + Fxr) / M
And for rear Dx = (Fxmr + Fxf) / M
Substituting in equation (1) and (2)
Fxmf = [p (Wfs + h Fxr / L)] / [1 p h/L]
Fxmr = [p (Wrs - h Fxf / L)] / [1 + p h/L]

MAXIMUM BRAKE FORCES AS A

FUNCTION OF DECELERATION

MAXIMUM BRAKING FORCES ON THE

FRONT AND REAR AXLES
brake
proportioning
describes the relationship
between the front and rear
brake forces determined
by the pressure applied to
each brake and the gain of
each. It is represented by a
line on the graph starting
at the origin and extending
upward to the right. A
fixed
or
constant
proportioning is a straight
line.

BRAKING EFFICIENCY
The braking efficiency of a vehicle is defined as the braking force
produced as a percentage of the total weight of the vehicle.
braking efficiency, = braking force x 100 / weight of the vehicle
Since braking force = frictional force and normal load = weight of the
vehicle
Coefficient of friction = frictional force / normal load
= braking force / weight of the vehicle
Therefore,
=
Hence =
The brake efficiency can be derived from the kinetic energy possessed
by the vehicle and the work done in bringing the vehicle to a stand
still.
Let
F = braking force
= coefficient of friction

BRAKING EFFICIENCY
W = vehicle weight
U = initial vehicle speed
M = vehicle mass
S = stopping distance
= brake efficiency
Then equating work and kinetic energy
FS = 1.2 MU2 = WU2 / 2g
Or
F/W==
Thus stopping distance S = U2 / 2g
Therefore, Braking efficiency = (U2 / 2gS) . 100
Braking efficiency for actual brake system is defined as the ratio of
actual deceleration achieved to the best performance possible on
the given road surface.
b = Dact / p

BRAKING EFFICIENCY
Braking efficiency is determined by calculating the brake forces,
deceleration, axle loads, and braking coefficient on each axle as a
function of application pressure.
Braking coefficient. The braking coefficient is defined as the ratio of
brake force to load on a wheel or axle.
Example problem:
Determine the braking efficiency of a vehicle if the brakes bring the
vehicle to rest from 60 km/h in a distance of 15 m.

EFFICIENCY PLOT FOR A

TRACTOR - SEMITRAILOR

OPTIMAL PEDAL FORCE GAIN

Influential design variables:
The positioning of pedal
Braking effort
Displacement of pedal
National highway traffic
safety
administration
sponsored a research to
determine
the
ergonomic properties for
the brake pedal that
would give the most
effective control.
The research identified
an optimum range for
pedal force gain the
relationship
between