2.1. Hydro 1

Part B2: Hydro power
B2.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power
B1.2
Reservoirs
Seminars Monday A206a
Group 1 (16:00)
Group 2 (16:30)
Gunjan Dhingra
Dafydd Caffery
Rob Morford
Roger Palmer
Mike Farrow
Samuel Carter
Chris Swinburn
Anthony Pearson
Hannah Jones
Nedim Dzananovic
Kate Taylor
Gareth Pilmoor
Matt Knight
Philip Hallgarth
Celia Way
Ann Ruthven
Paul Knowles
Neil Harding
Marie Wells
Matthew Scott
Peter Adams
Martin Hill
Matt Whitley
Ben Sheterline
Elizabeth Aldridge
Karen Hockey
Eral Kahveci
Melanie Sim
Jonathan Bailey
Ching Hong
Imra Karimn
Nicholas Thompson
Khesraw Bashir
Adam Ithier
Martin Kendrick
Daniel Tkotsch
Christopher Baxter
Peter Jordan
Shua Lii
Christopher Tompkins
Richard Buckland
Jan Jozefowski
Beth Mcdowall
Ian Yeung
Adil Munir
B2.1
Hydro power
Topics: Fundamentals
Power available
The energy equation, quick and dirty power

estimation
Hydro systems
Parts of a hydro system, types of hydro

system
power needs
Load curves, load factors, methods of

smoothing system demand
yields and economics
Use of flow-duration curves, efficiency

methods of estimating yields, estimating
economic viability, other factors effecting
viability
B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

The energy equation
Shaft work
2
p2 v2 2

p1 v1
z2
z1 hq hs h f
2
g
g
2
g
Heat energyFriction
losses
p
= Pressure (Pa)
g
= Gravity (m s2)
= fluid density (kg m-3)
v
= velocity (m s-1)
zt
= Elevation (m)
h = energy (meters)

The energy equation: Implications:
Flow in pipes: No friction, no shaft work
v1
p1
z1
Energy line
p gh
v2
z2
p2

Flow in pipes: Friction, no shaft work
v1
p1
z1
Energy line
p g h h f
v2
z2
p2

Flow in pipes: Friction: Equations
Darcys formula
Hf
2
L v
Hf f
D 2 g
= Friction head loss (m)
f
= Friction factor
L = Pipe length (m)
D
= Pipe diameter (m)
v
= velocity (m s-1)
g
= Gravity (m s2)

Flow in pipes: Friction: Moody diagram

Flow in pipes: Friction: Nomogram

Flow in pipes: Friction: Equations
Blasius equation
For hydraulically smooth
pipe
(Re 4,000 100,000)
0.3164
f
Re0.25
f
= Friction factor
k = Surface roughness
D
= Pipe diameter (m)
Re
= Reynolds number
g
= Gravity (m s2)
Swamee-Jain equation
10-6 < k/D < 0.01
(Re 5,000 3x108)
0.25
5.74
k
log10 3.7 D Re0.9

Flow in pipes: Friction and shaft work
v1
p1
v1 v2 v3
Energy line
p1 p3
z1
v2
so
p2
v3
z2
p3
hs h h f

Flow in pipes: Friction and shaft work
v1
hs h h f H
p1
Energy line
Extracting pressure energy
p g h h f gH
z1
v2
So
p2
v3
z2
p3
P Fv APv vA gH
Q gH

Types of hydro system
Low head (run of the river only)
Medium head (stored only)
High head (run of the river or stored)

Types of hydro system
Large scale
Small scale (<1MW)
Cheaper per kW
Quick import delivered Little (or no)
on a turnkey basis
dependence on overseas
technologies
Capacity building
Can use local
labour/materials
Can serve urban

demand
Close to (rural) users
Fisheries/leisure
Mostly run of river so

no reservoir problems

Parts of a hydro system
B2.1.2 Hydro power

Parts of a hydro system: Ideals
Intake and power canal
See section 1.3
Forebay
Must be able to cope with largest flow required
by turbine
Penstock
Keep as short as possible?
Powerhouse
Should be close to settlement (reduces
transmission costs) or easily accessible (for
maintenance)
Tailrace
Should empty into natural water course

Parts of a hydro system: The powerhouse
Control
generator
Coupling
Turbine

Parts of a hydro system: The powerhouse

Power needs: Load curves

Power needs : Load curves

Power needs : Load curves

Power needs : Load and plant factors
Load factor
fload
Paverage demand
Ppeak demand
Plant factor
f plant
Etotal demand
Einstalled
Aim for more than 0.6

Power needs : Calculating load and plant
factors
community
100 households
bulbs/house
wattage/bulb
13 W
Total light load

Total installed capacity
2.6 kW
3 kW

factors
Time
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
Fraction of lights used

0.05
0.05
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.5
1
1
0.7
0.2
Total Power used

130
130
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
520
1,300
2,600
2,600
1,820
520

factors
3,000
Power used (W)
2,500
Load factor, 0.15

Plant factor, 0.13
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
00:00
06:00
12:00
Series1
18:00
00:00

Power needs : Improving load and plant
factors
Time
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
industry
Fraction
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.1
0
0
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
500
200
200
0
0
lighting
Fraction
0.05
0.05
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.5
1
1
0.7
0.2
Total
Total
130
130
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
520
1,300
2,600
2,600
1,820
520
130
130
0
0
0
0
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,520
1,800
2,800
2,800
1,820
520

factors
3,000
Power used (W)
2,500
Load factor, 0.45

Plant factor, 0.42
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
00:00
06:00
12:00
Lights only
18:00
Lights and industry
00:00

factors
Time
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
Battery charging
Fraction
Total
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0.013
625
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
industry
Fraction
Total
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.25
500
0.5
1,000
0.75
1,500
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
0.5
1,000
0.25
500
0.1
200
0.1
200
0
0
0
0
lighting
Fraction
Total
0.025
65
0.025
65
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
260
0.25
650
0.5
1,300
0.5
1,300
0.35
910
0.1
260
Total
690
690
625
625
625
625
625
1,125
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,260
1,150
1,500
1,500
910
260

factors
3,000
Load factor, 0.64
Power used (W)
2,500
Plant factor, 0.64
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
00:00
06:00
Lights only
12:00
Lights and industry
18:00
00:00
With battery charging

factors
Battery storage
Slow cookers
Water heating
Water pumping
Divert water to other uses
Short term (<24 hour) water storage
at weir

factors: How to encourage off-peak use
Subsidy
Tariffs
This must be discussed and agreed

before work commences

Yields and economics
So losses overall are about 50%

Yields and economics: Quick and dirty
yield
Power delivered
per square kilometre of catchment
per meter of annual rainfall
per meter of head
P 0.5Q gH 0.5 kPA gH

0.6 1 1,000,000
1000 10 1
60 60 24 365
95.13
0.5
Which is pretty close to 100W/km2/mrain/mhead

Yields and economics: Flow-duration
curve
Discharge (m /s)
10
99.8
99.9
99.95
99.98
99.99
Percentage of discharge exceeding
98
99
95
90
70
50
30
10
0.5
1
2
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.1
http://www.geocities.com/jonpeltier/Excel/Charts/ProbabilityChart.html

curve
Discharge (m /s)
10
99.8
99.9
99.95
99.98
99.99
98
99
95
90
70
50
30
10
0.5
1
2
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.1

curve
P Q gH 0.5e 24 365
0.33 1000 10 1 0.5 0.95 24 365
13,731kWh/m head
14,000 kWh/m head
99.8
99.9
99.95
99.98
99.99
98
99
95
90
70
50
30
10
0.5
1
2
0.1
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
Discharge (m 3 /s)
10
Worth about 4-500 in the UK wholesale market

curve
Discharge (m /s)
10
18,000 kWh/mhead
14,000 kWh/mhead
12,000 kWh/mhead
99.8
99.9
99.95
99.98
99.99
98
99
95
90
70
50
30
10
0.5
1
2
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.1

curve
Discharge (m /s)
10
1
17,000 kWh/mhead
8,500 kWh/mhead
4,000 kWh/mhead
99.8
99.9
99.95
99.98
99.99
98
99
95
90
70
50
30
10
0.5
1
2
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.1

Power needs : Plant factors
f plant
Etotal demand
Einstalled
fplant
= Plant factor
Etotal demand
= Surface
roughness
= Pipe diameter
(m)
= Reynolds number
Einstalled
Etotal demand Edaily demand f exceedance Edaily demand

fexceedence
= fraction of time
that demand is
exceeded

Yields and economics: Unit energy cost
Cunit energy
Cunit energy
= Unit energy cost
Cannual
= Annualised cost
Pinstalled
= Operation and
maintenance cost
= Installed power
fplant
= Plant factor
Cannual CO&M
CO&M
(24 365) Pinstalled f plant

Yields and economics: Interest
Cannual Ccapital
i1 i
1 i 1
n
Cannual
= Annualised cost
Ccapital
= Capital cost
i
n
= Interest rate
= number of years

Yields and economics: Economies of scale
target cost 1000/kW

Yields and economics: Cost breakdown
Electromechanical
27%
Civil works
19%
Civil works
13%
Penstock
21%
Penstock
12%
Engineering
12%
Distribution
14%
Nepal
Engineering
12%
Distribution
6%
Sri Lanka
Electromechanical
48%

Yields and economics: Cost breakdown
(60kW scheme)
Item
Cost
Planning
4,000
Management/finance
2,000
Penstock
27
37,000
Other civil works
25
35,000
Electro-mechanical
26
36,000
12,000
10
13,000
Distribution
Contingency
Total capital
Annualised cost (based on 10% interest over 10 years)
139,000
22,600
Operation and maintenance
4,000
Annual cost
26,000
Plant factor
0.6
Unit energy cost
0.085/kWh

Yields and economics: Environmental
impact: Potential benefits
Prevention of deforestation
Reduced pollution
Reduced erosion of roads/paths from carrying
Environmental protection/Flood control

Yields and economics: Environmental
impact: Potential costs
Stream diversion
Changes to aquatic ecosystem (impact on
Fishing)
Changes to bank ecosystem
Changes to drinking animals
Possible erosion at tailrace
Water storage
Mosquito breeding
Drinking animals

Yields and economics: Social impact:
Potential benefits
Better education/health
Increased earning potential from powered industry
Self reliance local capacity building
Reduction of limited ownership/control of power
sources
More comfort
Recreation
Reduction of urbanisation as rural life improves
Community building
Who benefits?

Potential costs
Existing energy/fuel suppliers
Existing stream users
Potential for unrest if benefits are distributed
unequally (or unexpectedly)
Use of sweat equity may cause problems
Who loses?

Assessment: Things to check
Types of people
Institutions
Energy sources
Village organisations
Household and individuals
Entrepreneurs and officials
Other villages and model schemes
B2.1.4 Hydro power

Sustainable livelihoods
" A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets

(including both material and social resources)
and activities required for a means of living. A
livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with
and recover from stresses and shocks and
maintains or enhances its capabilities and assets
both now and in the future, while not
undermining the natural resource base."
Hydro is not the end it is the means

Yields and economics: When is hydro
viable
When there is a need for power
schools, hospitals, unrealised potential for local
industry
When alternatives are unavailable or difficult

Diesel generators fuel cost (including
transport), individual ownership
Grid extension expense(?), uncertainty of
future tariffs
When there is the ability in the community to

manage the system

Yields and economics: When is hydro
viable

2.1. Hydro 1

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2.1. Hydro 1

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Part B2: Hydro power

B2.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

The energy equation, quick and dirty power

Parts of a hydro system, types of hydro

Load curves, load factors, methods of

yields and economics

Use of flow-duration curves, efficiency

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

= Friction head loss (m)

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.1 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Extracting pressure energy

B2.1.2 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Low head (run of the river only)

Medium head (stored only)

High head (run of the river or stored)

B2.1.2 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Small scale (<1MW)

Can serve urban

Close to (rural) users

Mostly run of river so

B2.1.2 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.2 Hydro power

B2.1.2 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.2 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Aim for more than 0.6

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Total light load

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Fraction of lights used

Total Power used

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Power used (W)

Load factor, 0.15

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Power used (W)

Load factor, 0.45

Lights and industry

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

Load factor, 0.64

Power used (W)

Plant factor, 0.64

Lights and industry

With battery charging

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

B2.1.3 Fundamentals of Hydro power

This must be discussed and agreed

B2.1.4 Fundamentals of Hydro power

So losses overall are about 50%

B2.1.4 Fundamentals of Hydro power

P 0.5Q gH 0.5 kPA gH