Origin of Hydrocarbons

Origin of Hydrocarbons
Two theories of origin
Inorganic theories
Deep seated
Extra-terrestrial
Organic theory

Deep seated hypothesis

Deep seated hypothesis
Dmitri Mendeleev, father of periodic table
Proposed that metallic carbides deep within the earth reacted
at high temperatures with water to form acetylene (C2H2)
which subsequently condensed to form heavier hydrocarbons.
This reaction was readily reproduced in the laboratory.
They rely on the fact that earths store of methane, atleast, is
primitive and a feature of the origin of the solar system

Evidences
Solid petroleum bitumen occurrence in
igneous environments
Micro-inclusions of petroleum hydrocarbons
have been identified in the minerals of
alkaline igneous rocks.
Association of HC with Hydrothermal systems
Bitumens in several active volcanoes(etna
etc)
Some of the oilfields location (Indonesia,
Mexico)

Extraterrestrial Hypothesis
W. Sokolof proposed a cosmic origin.
It was precipitated as rain from the
original nebular matter from which
the solar system was formed.
Subsequently it was ejected from the
earths interior into the surface rocks

Evidences
The present and the past atmosphere
of the Earth.
Critical discovery of (carbonaceous
chondrite) meteorite
The presence of hydrocarbons on
other planets.

Evidences

Organic origin

Oil and gas are made of a mixture of

different hydrocarbons.

Organic origin
Similar to the materials essential for life such
as Proteins, fats and fatty acids.
Fossils led to the anologies with marine life
Whale oil and fish oil
Further similarities with coal
Close association between oil and sediments
Biomarkers- compounds of undoubted organic
derivation. (waxes, porphyrins and steranes)
Carbon isotope C13 and C12

Accumulation of Organic
matter
10,000 of these bugs
would fit on a pinhead!

Plant plankton

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ceratium_hirundinella.jpg

Animal plankton

Accumulation of Organic
matter
Today, most plankton can be
found where deep ocean
currents rise to the surface
This upwelling water is rich in
nutrients and causes the
plankton to bloom
Blooms of certain plankton
called dinoflagellates may
give the water a red tinge

Miriam Godfrey

Dinoflagellate bloom

Accumulation of Organic
matter
The renewal of fresh nutrient rich
water doesnot take place.
The water become layered
The deposition takes place below the
thermocline

Accumulation of Organic
matter

When the plankton dies it rain

down on sea bed to form an
organic mush

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nerr0328.jpg

If there are any animals on the

Se

sea bed these will feed on the

a
be organic particles

Accumulation of Organic
matter

However, if there is little or no

oxygen in the water then ani
cant survive and the organic
mush accumulates
Where sediment
contains
more than 5%
organic matter,
it eventually
forms a rock

The summary of the Process of

accumulation

Source Rocks

Source Rocks
Shale and Limestones
Two major divisions in lithology
A sandwiched layer of organic matter
in between the layers of sediments.

Kerogen
Organic carbon (Weight
percent)

Quality

0.0.5

Poor

0.5-1

Fair

1-2

Good

2-4

Very good

Above 4

Excellent

Kerogen
The TOC may reach 20 percent or
more by weight.
It is highest in coals and rich oil
shales.
The TOC has two parts:
Soluble in organic solvents is
bituminous(bitumen)
Insoluble, nonextractable residue from
the initial transformation of OM is
Kerogen

Kerogen
Carbonates and shales contain
organic matter.
Carbonates contain much less OM
than do shales.
But the OM of the carbonates is
much richer in HC than that of shales

Elemental Data For Kerogen

Peters, 1986

TYPES OF KEROGEN
Type I
This type of kerogen is characterized by having a high initial
hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio (H/C) of 1.5 or more, and a
low oxygen to carbon atomic ratio (O/C) of less than 0.1.
Type I kerogen has a hydrogen index greater than 300 and an
oxygen index less than 50.
Its primary source is from algal sediments, such as lacustrine
deposits.
Type I kerogen is also called alginite kerogen, containing high
concentrations of alkanes and fatty acids.
It is the best source for oil-prone maturation, but unfortunately
it is very rare.

Type II
This type of kerogen has a relatively high H/C ratio (1.0 to 1.4)
and a low O/C ratio (0.09 to 1.5).
Type II kerogen has a hydrogen index between 200 and 300,
and an oxygen index between 50 and 100.
It consists of abundant moderate length aliphatic chains and
naphthenic rings.
Ester bonds are common and sulfur is present in substantial
amounts.
Type II kerogen is also called exinite, and is usually associated
with marine sediments, where autochthonous organic matter
(bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton) have been deposited
in a reducing environment.
It is a good oil or gas prone kerogen. It is more common than
alginite.

Type III
This type of kerogen has a relatively low H/C ratio (usually <1.0)
and low O/C ratio (0.2 to 0.3).
Type III kerogen has a hydrogen index below 300 and an
oxygen index above 100.
It contains an important proportion of polyaromatic nuclei and
heteroatomic ketone and carboxylic acid groups.
Aliphatic groups are a minor constituent, usually consisting of
longer chains originating from higher-order plant waxes.
The main source of this type of kerogen are continental plants
found in thick detrital sedimentation along continental margins.
This type of kerogen is also called vitrinite. It is less favorable for
oil generation, but will provide a source rock for gas.

CONTROLS ON TOTAL ORGANIC MATTER

Productivity

Grain size
Sedimentation rate
Oxidation/Reduction

ENVIRONMENT OF TRANSFORMATION
Mostly Hydrogen and Carbon are needed
Oxygen and Nitrogen should be removed

Not possible in oxygenated environments

No prolonged exposure to atmosphere, aerated waters
Or subsurface waters carrying acids or bases, to elemental sulfur,
Or vulcanicity or igneous activity

If the Oxygen content in water > 1mg/l

Aerobic decomposition of OM is very efficient
Organisms also play their part in destruction of OM

If the Oxygen is < 0.1 mg/l

Decomposition of organic matter is slow
Anaerobic bacteria may use the Nitrogen and Sulphur
Anoxic environments and quick burial is needed

Anaerobic decomposition is influenced by the:

Grain size
Coarse grains Oxygenated
Fine grains Anoxygenated
Sedimentation rate
Slow and discotinuous
Rapid

Conversion of organic
matter
The transformation of OM to kerogen proceeds
from shallow depths of burial to depths of
perhaps 1000m, with temperatures up to 50
degree centgrades.
On further burial and heating, the large
molecules crack to form smaller, lower
molecular weight hydrocarbons
(geomonomers), around 1000-6000 m depth
and 50-175 degree centigrade temperature.

General Scheme for Hydrocarbon Formation

Tissot et al., 1974

Conversion of organic
matter
Initial products are H2O and CO2
Hydrogen, methane and liquid
products C13 C30.
Oxygen is lost most rapidly by
dehydration and decarboxylation
Carbon and Nitrogen are lost least
rapidly.

Conversion of organic
matter
The progressive alteration of OM
leads to two fractions:
A fluid product high in hydrogen,
eventually petroleum and natural gas.
A residue high in carbon, such as
bituminous coal.
Increase in the atomic ratio of hydrogencarbon in the oils.

Conversion of Kerogen

Organic matter: 1%

Barker, 1996

Kerogen 90%
Bitumen 10%

Precursors of Petroleum
Humic- gas prone
Sapropelic- oil prone
Classification of Humic and
sapropelic on the basis of H:C :
Less than 0.8, predominantly humic.
Between 0.8 and 1.0, mixed
Above 1.0, predominantly sapropelic.

Porosity and Permeability

Definition
Formula
Procedures
Controlling Factors

Permeability
Definition
Formula
Procedure
Controlling factors.