MEM560

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

6.1 Introduction
What is traditional machining (TM)?
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to
form a chip. As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A crosssectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake
angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).

 A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to

mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry
remains
Most common application: to shape metal parts
Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in its capability to
produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features
with high precision and accuracy
Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the
precision and accuracy of machining

Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of
material from a starting workpart so the remaining part has the desired
geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning,
milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g.,
grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other than sharp cutting
tool to remove material
Machining in manufacturing sequences
Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as
casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special
geometric details that other processes cannot create

Why Machining is Important (Advantages):

Variety of work materials can be machined

Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric features
possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages:
Wasteful of material
Time consuming

6.2 Machine tool systems

mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of
machines by machining, which is the selective removal of metal
(cut, shape & form)
power source other than human movement
Via processes of cutting, impact, pressure, electrical techniques or
of combinations
Presently : > accurate & efficient
Hydraulic & electronic devices : rapid, numerically controllable,
versatile artificial intelligent (AI) of sensor and intelligence
application.

6.3 Machining operations and

machine tools
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Turning and Related Operations

Drilling and Related Operations
Milling
Machining Centers and Turning Centers
Other Machining Operations
High Speed Machining

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylinder
Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
Facing
Contour turning
Chamfering
Cutof
Threading

Turning

Turning Operation

Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)

Facing

Tool is fed
radially inward

Contour Turning
Instead of feeding tool
parallel to axis of
rotation, tool follows a
contour that is other
than straight, thus
creating a contoured
shape

Chamfering

Cutting edge cuts an

angle on the corner
of the cylinder,
forming a "chamfer"

Cutoff

Tool is fed radially into

rotating work at some location
to cut of end of part

Threading

Pointed form tool is fed linearly

across surface of rotating
workpart parallel to axis of
rotation at a large feed rate, thus
creating threads

Engine Lathe

Diagram of an engine lathe, showing its principal components

Methods of Holding the Work in a

Lathe

Holding the work between centers

Chuck
Collet
Face plate

Holding the Work Between Centers

(a) mounting the work between centers using a "dog

Chuck

(b) threejaw chuck

Collet

Face Plate

(d) face plate for noncylindrical workparts

Multiple Spindle Bar Machines

More than one spindle, so multiple parts
machined simultaneously by multiple tools
Example: six spindle automatic bar machine
works on six parts at a time
After each machining cycle, spindles (including
collets and workbars) are indexed (rotated) to
next position

Multiple Spindle Bar Machine

(a) Part produced on a sixspindle automatic bar machine; and (b)

sequence of operations to produce the part: (1) feed stock to stop, (2)
turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill,
(5) chamfer, and (6) cutof.

Boring
Diference between boring and turning:
Boring is performed on the inside diameter
of an existing hole
Turning is performed on the outside
diameter of an existing cylinder
In efect, boring is internal turning operation
Boring machines
Horizontal or vertical - refers to the
orientation of the axis of rotation of
machine spindle

Vertical Boring Mill

A vertical boring mill for large, heavy workparts.

Drilling
Creates a round
hole in a
workpart
Compare to
boring which can
only enlarge an
existing hole
Cutting tool
called a drill or
drill bit
Machine tool:
drill press

Through Holes vs. Blind Holes

Throughholes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blindholes does not exit work opposite side

Two hole types: (a) throughhole, and (b) blind hole.

Reaming

Used to slightly
enlarge a hole,
provide better
tolerance on
diameter, and
improve surface
finish

Tapping

Used to provide
internal screw
threads on an
existing hole
Tool called a tap

Counterboring
Provides a
stepped hole, in
which a larger
diameter follows
smaller diameter
partially into the
hole

Drill Press
Upright drill
press stands on
the floor
Bench drill
similar but
smaller and
mounted on a
table or bench

Work Holding for Drill Presses

Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of the
following:
Vise - general purpose workholder with two
jaws
Fixture - workholding device that is usually
customdesigned for the particular workpart
Drill jig similar to fixture but also provides a
means of guiding the tool during drilling

Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a
rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
Creates a planar surface
Other geometries possible either by cutter
path or shape
Other factors and terms:
Interrupted cutting operation
Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting
edges called "teeth"
Machine tool called a milling machine

Two Forms of Milling

Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling.

Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling

Peripheral milling
Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
Face milling
Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being
milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter

Slab Milling

Basic form of peripheral

milling in which the cutter
width extends beyond the
workpiece on both sides

Slotting

Width of cutter is less

than workpiece width,
creating a slot in the work

Conventional Face Milling

Cutter overhangs
work on both sides

High speed face

milling using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy
of Kennametal
Inc.).

Surface Contouring

Ballnose cutter
fed back and forth
across work along
a curvilinear path
at close intervals
to create a three
dimensional
surface form

Horizontal Milling Machine

(a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.

Vertical Milling Machine

(b) vertical kneeandcolumn milling machine

Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can perform
multiple machining operations under CNC
control in one setup with minimal human
attention
Typical operations are milling and drilling
Three, four, or five axes
Other features:
Automatic toolchanging
Automatic workpart positioning

Universal machining center; highly automated, capable of multiple

machining operations under computer control in one setup with
minimal human attention (photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron).

CNC 4axis turning center (photo courtesy of Cincinnati

Milacron); capable of turning and related operations, contour
turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer control.

Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform
turning, milling, and drilling operations
General configuration of a turning center
Can position a cylindrical workpart at a
specified angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g.,
milling cutter) can machine features into
outside surface of part
Conventional turning center cannot stop workpart
at a defined angular position and does not
include rotating tool spindles

Operation of Mill-Turn Center

Figure 22.28 Operation of a millturn center: (a) example part with turned,
milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a millturn
center: (1) turn second diameter, (2) mill flat with part in programmed angular
position, (3) drill hole with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutof.

Shaping and Planing

Similar operations
Both use a single point cutting tool
moved linearly relative to the workpart

Figure 22.29 (a) Shaping, and (b) planing.

Shaping and Planing

A straight, flat surface is created in both
operations
Interrupted cutting
Subjects tool to impact loading when entering
work
Low cutting speeds due to startandstop motion
Typical tooling: single point high speed steel tools

Shaper
Shaping
Machining by shaping is
basically the same as by
planing, except that
(a) it is the tool and not
the workpiece that
travels, and
(b) workpieces are
smaller, typically less
than 1m2m of surface
area. In a horizontal
shaper, the cutting tool
travels back and forth
along a straight path.

Components of a shaper.

Planer
Planing
A relatively simple
machining operation by
which flat surfaces, as
well as cross-sections with
grooves and notches, are
produced along the length
of the workpiece.

The efficiency of the

operation can be
improved by equipping
planers with tool holders
and tools that cut in both
directions of table travel.

Open side planer.

Broaching
Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly
relative to work in direction of tool axis

Broaching
Advantages:
Good surface finish
Close tolerances
Variety of work shapes possible
Cutting tool called a broach
Owing to complicated and often customshaped
geometry, tooling is expensive

Sawing
Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a
series of narrowly spaced teeth
Tool called a saw blade
Typical functions:
Separate a workpart into two pieces
Cut of unwanted portions of part

Power Hacksaw

(a) power hacksaw linear reciprocating motion of hacksaw

blade against work.

Band Saw

(b) bandsaw (vertical) linear

continuous motion of
bandsaw blade, which is in
the form of an endless flexible
loop with teeth on one edge.

Circular Saw

(c) circular saw rotating saw blade provides continuous

motion of tool past workpart.

High Speed Machining (HSM)

Cutting at speeds significantly higher than those
used in conventional machining operations
Persistent trend throughout history of machining
is higher and higher cutting speeds
At present there is a renewed interest in HSM
due to potential for faster production rates,
shorter lead times, and reduced costs

Other HSM Definitions

Emphasis on:
Higher production rates
Shorter lead times
Rather than functions of spindle speed
Important non-cutting factors:
Rapid traverse speeds
Automatic tool changes

Requirements for High Speed

Machining
Special bearings designed for high rpm
High feed rate capability (e.g., 50 m/min)
CNC motion controls with look-ahead features
to avoid undershooting or overshooting tool
path
Balanced cutting tools, toolholders, and spindles
to minimize vibration
Coolant delivery systems that provide higher
pressures than conventional machining
Chip control and removal systems to cope with
much larger metal removal rates

High Speed Machining Applications

Aircraft industry, machining of large airframe
components from large aluminum blocks
Much metal removal, mostly by milling
Multiple machining operations on aluminum to
produce automotive, computer, and medical
components
Quick tool changes and tool path control
important
Die and mold industry
Fabricating complex geometries from hard
materials

6.4 Metal cutting

Definition:
Machining : term applied to all material-removal
processes
Metal cutting : the process in which a thin layer of
excess metal (chip) is removed by a wedge-shaped
single-point or multipoint cutting tool with defined
geometry from a workpiece, through a process of
extensive plastic deformation

Cont.
Abrasive processes : material removal by the action

of hard, abrasive particles that are usually in the form of

a bonded wheel. Each single particle acts like a singlepoint cutting tool. Since the particular geometry of a
particle is not known, abrasive processes are referred to
as machining with geometrically undefined tools.

Cont.
Non-traditional processes:
machining
electrical, optical or chemical sources of energy

with

Place of Machining Operation

Machining operations capable of producing more precise

dimensions and smooth surface finishes than all other
manufacturing processes. They are performed after other
processes, which create the general shape of the parts.
Machining then provides the final geometry, dimensions

Types of Cutting

Orthogonal cutting : the cutting edge is straight and is set

in a position that is perpendicular to the direction of
primary motion. This allows us to deal with stresses and
strains that act in a plane.
Oblique Cutting : the cutting edge is set at an angle (the
tool cutting edge inclination s). This is the case of threedimensional stress and strain conditions.

Cutting Conditions
Cutting velocity, V : the traveling velocity of the tool
relative to the workpiece. It is
measured in m/s or m/min.
Depth of cut, d

Feed, f

: the axial projection of the length of

the
active
cutting
tool
edge,
measured in mm. In orthogonal
cutting it is equal to the actual width
of cut bD .

the relative movement of the tool in order to

process the entire
surface of the
workpiece. In orthogonal cutting it is
equal to the thickness of cut hD and is
measured in mm tr-1 in turning, or
mm/min in milling and drilling.

Cont.

6.5 Chip formation

serrated

Large feed and

depth of cut
High toolchip
friction
Brittle work
materials
Low cutting
speeds

Ductile work
materials
High cutting
speeds
Small feeds and
depths
Sharp cutting
edge
Low toolchip
friction

Ductile materials
Lowtomedium
cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction
causes portions of
chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks of,
cyclically

Semicontinuous saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip
forms with
alternating high
shear strain then
low shear strain
Associated with
difficult-tomachine metals
at high cutting
speeds

Discontinuous chips are generally desired because they

are less dangerous for the operator
do not cause damage to workpiece surface and
machine tool
can be easily removed from the work zone

can be easily handled and disposed after

machining.
There are three principle methods to produce the
favorable discontinuous chip:
proper selection of cutting conditions
use of chip breakers
change in the work material properties

Selection of Cutting Condition

Cutting velocity changes chip type as discussed. Since the

cutting speed influences to the great extend the productivity of
machining and surface finish, working at low speeds may not be
desirable.
If the cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed and
depth of cut is a reasonable solution for chip control. At constant
cutting speed, the so-called chip map defines the area of desirable
chip type as a function of feed and depth of cut.

Chip Breaker
Chip break and chip curl may be promoted by use of a socalled chip breaker. There are two types of chip
breakers
1. external type, an inclined obstruction clamped to
the tool face
2. integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or
bulges formed onto the tool face

Cutting Forces

In
three-dimensional
oblique
cutting,
one
more force component
appears along the third
axis. The thrust force FD
is further resolved into
two more components:
Ff one in the direction of feed motion called feed force
Fp the other perpendicular to it and to the cutting force F C
called back force which is in the direction of the cutting tool
axis.

Force Determination

Cutting Force Control

Cont.

The cutting speed, V does not change significantly the

cutting force FC. Increasing the cutting speed slightly
reduces the cutting force. The dependence is more complex in
the low speed range for materials, which tend to form a built-up
edge. When the built-up edge disappears at high cutting speeds,
the dependence is essentially the same as this for materials,
which do not form a built-up edge at all.

Feed, f changes significantly the cutting force. The dependence

is non-linear because of the so-called size efect at low feeds.

Depth of cut, d also changes significantly the cutting force

but the dependence now is linear.
From the above, it can be concluded that the most effective
method of force control is to change the depth of cut and
feed. If for some reasons change of the cutting conditions is not
justified, machining with positive tool orthogonal rake angles will

6.6. Cutting tool material

Tool failure modes identify the important
properties that a tool material should possess:
Toughness to avoid fracture failure
Hot hardness ability to retain hardness at
high temperatures
Wear resistance hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasive wear

Hot Hardness

Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials. Plain

carbon steel shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases.
High speed steel is substantially better, while cemented carbides and
ceramics are significantly harder at elevated temperatures.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

Highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining
hardness at elevated temperatures better than
high carbon and low alloy steels
One of the most important cutting tool materials
Especially suited to applications involving
complicated tool geometries, such as drills, taps,
milling cutters, and broaches
Two basic types (AISI)
1. Tungstentype, designated T grades
2. Molybdenumtype, designated Mgrades

Cemented Carbides
Class of hard tool material based on tungsten
carbide (WC) using powder metallurgy
techniques with cobalt (Co) as the binder
Two basic types:
1. Nonsteel cutting grades - only WCCo
2. Steel cutting grades - TiC and TaC added to
WCCo

Cemented Carbides General

Properties
High compressive strength but lowtomoderate
tensile strength
High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
Good hot hardness
Good wear resistance
High thermal conductivity
High elastic modulus 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106
lb/in2)
Toughness lower than high speed steel

Cermets
Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride
(TiCN), with nickel and/or molybdenum as
binders.
Some chemistries are more complex
Applications: high speed finishing and
semifinishing of steels, stainless steels, and cast
irons
Higher speeds and lower feeds than
steelcutting carbide grades
Better finish achieved, often eliminating need
for grinding

Ceramics
Primarily finegrained Al2O3, pressed and sintered at
high pressures and temperatures into insert form
with no binder
Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and
steel
Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts
(e.g. rough milling) due to low toughness
Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding

Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) fabricated by sintering very finegrained
diamond crystals under high temperatures
and pressures into desired shape with little
or no binder
Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on
WC-Co insert
Applications: high speed machining of
nonferrous metals and abrasive nonmetals
such as fiberglass, graphite, and wood
Not for steel cutting

Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is
hardest material known
Fabrication into cutting tool inserts same as SPD:
coatings on WCCo inserts
Applications: machining steel and nickelbased
alloys
SPD and cBN tools are expensive

6.7 Tool life and wear

The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of
means, although they fall broadly into two main
categories:
1.gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and
flank of the cutting tool, and
2.abrupt tool failure.
When the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount,
there are two options,
1. to resharpen the tool on a tool grinder, or
2. to replace the tool with a new one. This second
possibility applies in two cases,
(i) when the
resource for tool resharpening is exhausted.
or (ii) the tool does not allow for resharpening,
e.g. in case of the indexable carbide inserts.

Wear Zones
Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a
cutting tool. Accordingly, three main types of tool wear
can be distinguished,
1. crater wear
2. flank wear
3. corner wear

Cont.
Crater wear : consists of a concave section on the
tool face formed by the action of the chip sliding on the
surface. Crater wear afects the mechanics of the
process increasing the actual rake angle of the
cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At
the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool
wedge and increases the possibility for tool
breakage. In general, crater wear is of a relatively
small concern.
Flank wear : occurs on the tool flank as a result of
friction between the machined surface of the workpiece
and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the form of socalled wear land and is measured by the width of this
wear land, VB, Flank wear affects to the great
extend the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces
increase significantly with flank wear. If the amount of

Cont.

Corner wear : occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered

as a part of the wear land and respectively flank wear since there
is no distinguished boundary between the corner wear and flank
wear land. We consider corner wear as a separate wear type
because of its importance for the precision of machining.
Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool thus increasing
gradually the dimension of machined surface and introducing a
significant dimensional error in machining, which can reach

Tool Life

Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds,

the amount of tool wear increases gradually. But tool wear must
not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit in order to
avoid tool failure. The most important wear type from the
process point of view is the flank wear, therefore the
parameter which has to be controlled is the width of flank
wear land, VB. This parameter must not exceed an initially
set safe limit, which is about 0.4 mm for carbide cutting
tools. The safe limit is referred to as allowable wear land (wear
criterion), VBk. The cutting time required for the cutting tool

Cont.
Parameters which afect the rate of tool wear are
cutting conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth
of cut d)
cutting tool geometry (tool orthogonal rake
angle)
properties of work material

Cont.
If the tool life values for the three wear curves are
plotted on the natural log-log graph of cutting speed
versus tool life as shown in the figure on the previous
slide, the resulting relationship is straight line expressed
in equation form called the Taylor tool life equation:

VT C
n

Where n and C are constants, whose values depend on

cutting conditions, work and tool material properties, and
tool geometry. These constants are well tabulated and
easily available.
An expanded version of Taylor equation can be
formulated to include the efect of feed, depth of cut, and

6.8 Cutting fluids

Cutting fluid(coolant) is any liquid or gas that is applied to
the chip and/or cutting tool to improve cutting
performance..
Cutting fluids serve three principle functions:
1.To remove heat in cutting: the efective cooling action of
the cutting fluid depends on the method of application, type of
the cutting fluid, the fluid flow rate and pressure. The most
efective cooling is provided by mist application combined with
flooding. Application of fluids to the tool flank, especially under
pressure, ensures better cooling that typical application to the
chip but it less convenient.
2.To lubricate the chip-tool interface:
cutting fluids
penetrate the tool-chip interface improving lubrication between
the chip and the tool and reducing the friction forces and
temperatures.
3.To wash away chips: this action is applicable to small,
discontinuous chips only. Special devices are subsequently

Method of Application

1. Manual Application

Application of a fluid from a can

manually by the operator. It is not
acceptable even in job-shop situations
except for tapping and some other
operations where cutting speeds are
very low and friction is a problem. In
this case, cutting fluids are used as
lubricants.

2. Flooding
In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is
directed at the chip or toolworkpiece interface. Most machine
tools are equipped with a recirculating
system that incorporates filters for
cleaning of cutting fluids. Cutting fluids
are applied to the chip although better
cooling is obtained by applying it to

Cont.

3. Coolant-fed tooling

Some tools, especially drills for deep drilling are provided with axial
holes through the body of the tool so that the cutting fluid can be
pumped directly to the tool cutting edge.

4. Mist applications
Fluid droplets suspended in air provide efective cooling by
evaporation of the fluid. Mist application in general is not as efective
as flooding, but can deliver cutting fluid to inaccessible areas that
cannot be reached by conventional flooding.

Types of Cutting Fluids

Cutting Oils
Cutting oils are cutting fluids based on mineral or fatty oil
mixtures. Chemical additives like sulphur improve oil lubricant
capabilities. Areas of application depend on the properties of the
particular oil but commonly cutting oils are used for heavy cutting
operations on tough steels.

Soluble Oils
The most common, cheap, and efective form of cutting fluids
consisting of oil droplets suspended in water in a typical ratio water
to oil 30:1. Emulsifying agents are also added to promote stability of
emulsion. For heavy-duty work, extreme pressure additives are used.
Oil emulsions are typically used for aluminum and copper alloys.

Chemical fluids
These cutting fluids consists of chemical diluted in water. They
possess good flushing and cooling abilities. Tend to form more stable
emulsions but may have harmful efects to the skin.

6.9 Machinability
Relative ease with which a material (usually a
metal) can be machined using appropriate tooling
and cutting conditions
Depends not only on work material
Type of machining operation, tooling, and cutting
conditions are also important factors

Machinability Criteria in Production

Tool life longer tool life for the given work
material means better machinability
Forces and power lower forces and power mean
better machinability
Surface finish better finish means better
machinability
Ease of chip disposal easier chip disposal means
better machinability

Machinability Testing
Most tests involve comparison of work
materials
Performance of a test material is
measured relative to a base material
Relative performance is expressed as a
machinability rating (MR)
MR of base material = 1.00 (100%)
MR of test material > 1.00 (100%) means
better machinability

Machinability Tests

Tool life (most common test)

Tool wear
Cutting force
Power required in the operation
Cutting temperature
Material removal rate under standard test
conditions

Comments on Machining
Economics
As tool change time Tt and/or tooling cost Ct
increase, cutting speed should be reduced
Tools should not be changed too often if either
tool cost or tool change time is high
Disposable inserts have an advantage over
regrindable tools because tool change time is
lower

Product Design Guidelines

Design parts that need no machining
Use net shape processes such as precision
casting, closed die forging, or plastic molding
If not possible, then minimize amount of
machining required
Use near net shape processes such as
impression die forging

Product Design Guidelines

Reasons why machining may be required:
Close tolerances
Good surface finish
Special geometric features such as threads,
precision holes, cylindrical sections with high
degree of roundness

Product Design Guidelines

Tolerances should be specified to satisfy
functional requirements, but process capabilities
should also be considered
Very close tolerances add cost but may not add
value to part
As tolerances become tighter, costs generally
increase due to additional processing, fixturing,
inspection, sortation, rework, and scrap

Product Design Guidelines

Surface finish should be specified to meet
functional and/or aesthetic requirements
However, better surface finish generally
increases processing cost by requiring
additional operations such as grinding
Machined features such as sharp corners,
edges, and points should be avoided
They are difficult to machine
Sharp internal corners require pointed cutting
tools that tend to break during machining
Sharp corners and edges tend to create burrs
and are dangerous to handle

Product Design Guidelines

Select materials with good machinability
As a rough guide, allowable cutting speed and
production rate correlates with machinability
rating of a material
Thus, parts made of materials with low
machinability take longer and cost more to
produce

Product Design Guidelines

Machined parts should be designed with features
that can be achieved with standard cutting tools
Avoid unusual hole sizes, threads, and features
requiring special form tools
Design parts so that number of individual
cutting tools needed is minimized