CHAPTER 5

Intermediate
Elements

Introduction
The output signal of any transducer needs to be modified

by elements known as intermediate elements, so that it

can be displayed or recorded with convenience. These
include:
1. Amplifiers for amplifying the transducer output.
2. Compensating devices. (not covered)
3. Differentiating/integrating elements.(not covered)
4. Filters for filtering out unwanted signal.
5. A-D/D-A converters.
6. Data transmission elements.

5.1 Amplifiers
Amplifiers increase the magnitude of the signal from a

transducer so that it can be conveniently

displayed/recorded.
These may be of mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
optical or electrical/electronic types, depending on the
type of transducer.
Attenuators are used in cases where reduction in the
magnitude of the signal from the transducers is needed.

5.1.1 Mechanical Amplifying Element

Simple in operation, rugged type and inexpensive.
Eg.

Huggenburger extensometer, Bourdon pressure

gauge.
Disadvantage: friction and stiction effects, backlash
errors, environmental temperature changes, and inertial
effects due to relatively higher mass.

Fig. 5.1 A typical mechanical amplifier (a lever type device)

5.1.2 Hydraulic Amplifying Element

Wide range of applications in the form of hydraulic

actuators in the control elements used in the automobile

hydraulic brakes and hydraulic steering systems.
Advantage: compactness of a specified force.
Disadvantage: possible leakages and problems in dusty
environments.

5.1.3 Pneumatic Amplifying Element

Pneumatic transducer (flapper nozzle type) was described

in Chap.4, for converting mechanical displacement Xi to

pressure P2.
Used in industrial environment where compressed air is

easily available.

Fig. 5.3 Pneumatic relay as amplifier

5.1.4 Optical Amplifying Element

Common application is in the taut suspension type of the

optical type galvanometer which is highly sensitive.

Cannot be used in dynamic measurements due inertia
effects of the mirror mass.

Fig. 5.4 A typical lamp and scale arrangement

5.1.5 Electrical Amplifying Element

Commonly transistor based or employ suitable integrated

circuits or both.
The following are characteristics of an ideal amplifier:
1. Infinite input impedance
2. Zero output impedance
3. Large gain
4. Zero output for zero input
Fig. 5.5 A typical electrical amplifying element

5. Ability to filter spurious inputs

6. Excellent frequency response

5.4 Filters
Filters is used to remove unwanted signals from the

desired transducer signal.

5.4.1 Classification of Filters
Filters may be classified according to Fig. 5.24, where the
amplitude ratio of output of the filter to the input is plotted
against frequency.

Fig. 5.24 Various types of filters

5.5 A-D and D-A Converters

5.5.1 A-D Converters
Simplest type is of potentiometric type, which employs
comparison elements that are in the form of
semiconductor relays/magnetic cores.

Fig. 5.30 Potentiometric type A-D Converter

5.5.1 A-D Converters (cont.)

Based on a similar principle, a successive approximation

type A-D converter, employing a D-A converter is

commonly used.

Fig. 5.31 Successive approximation type A-D converter

5.5.1 A-D Converters (cont.)

Another type of A-D converter, based on different principle

is counting type A-D converter, shown in Fig. 5.32 and

dual slope integrating type converter is shown in Fig.
5.34(a)

Fig. 5.32 Counting type A-D converter

Fig. 5.34(a) Dual slope integrating type A-D converter

5.5.2 D-A Converters

Whenever digital signals have

to be converted to analog, the

switching defining the digital
signal value has to be changed
to an equivalent voltage.

5.7 Data Transmission Elements

When the measured variables have to be transmitted over

long distances from the measuring points to a location for

display/recording of data, data transmission elements are
employed. Two categories are:
1. Land-line/cable type transmitted by wires/pipes.
Applied in process plants, power generating stations.
Includes electrical, pneumatic and position type
elements.
2. Radio-frequency (RF) type transmitted by radio
waves. Used in aerospace systems.

5.7.1 Electrical-Type Data Transmission Elements

The input measured variable (motion signal) is made to

change an electrical quantity, the effect of which is

transmitted by wires to the receiving ends, for record/display.

Fig. 5.36 Data transmission by change of electric quantity

5.7.2 Pneumatic-Type Data Transmission Elements

Land-line type, uses the flapper-nozzle arrangement.
Examples include pneumatic flow transmitter and force-

balance type pneumatic transmitter.

5.7.3 Position-Type Data Transmission Elements

Motion signal (rotation of a pointer) is transmitted over

long distances, by use of synchros.

5.7.4 Radio-Frequency Transmission Elements

Uses radio-frequency waves for data transmission and no

wires/cables required.
In large systems, a number of input signals may be
transmitted by such units.

Fig. 5.41 RF telemetry for data

transmission